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Hidden Killers 1998: The Global Landmine Crisis
Chapter III: Mine-Affected Countries |
EUROPE
[Bosnia-Herzegovina | Croatia]COUNTRY PROFILE: BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
Bosnia-Herzegovina, a land of mountains and valleys with a total area of 51,233 square kilometers, is located on the Balkan Peninsula in eastern Europe, bordered by Croatia, Serbia, and Montenegro. The population of 3,222,584 comprises three ethnic groups: Serb (40 percent), Muslim (38 percent), and Croat (22 percent). The current political structure, created by the 1995 Dayton Peace Accords, comprises two entities: the Muslim/Croat Federation of Bosnia-Herzegovina (the Federation), and the Serb-led Republika Srpska (the Republika). The national government is an emerging democracy based on proportional representation. Among the old Yugoslav Federation, only the Republic of Macedonia was poorer than Bosnia-Herzegovina. The recent civil war has left the economy in ruin; industrial production has fallen as much as 90 percent since 1990, and output has fallen to below $1,000 per capita (footnote 153).
Landmine Problem
The daily threat of landmines is a constant reminder of the five-year-long civil war that broke apart Yugoslavia. The inter-ethnic strife that began in 1992 resulted in heavy mining of vast areas of the country including economic and social centers; civilians became the target of landmines in "ethnic cleansing" campaigns. Today, Bosnia-Herzegovina has the most severe landmine problem in Europe.
Characterization of the Problem. Some 600,000-1 million landmines and a yet largely undetermined amount of UXO are estimated to infest some 300 square kilometers of land (footnote 154). The Mine Database in Sarajevo has records of 18,086 minefields, but the total number is believed to be closer to 30,000. Of those identified, approximately 12,000 have less than 10 landmines per field, and approximately 300 have more than 100 landmines per field (footnote 155). A total of 295,769 landmines has been identified, of which 83 percent are antipersonnel mines and 17 percent are antitank mines (footnote 156). Nearly 30 different types of landmines have been found, but as many as 85 types may have been deployed during the war (footnote 157). The majority of minefields are unmarked, and those that were marked were often identified by carvings on trees, branches, or red tape, which are not easily distinguishable means and do not last over time. Army maps that did exist were handed over to the Implementation Force (IFOR) after the signing of the peace agreement, but some areas were mined and re-mined during the war, making many maps worthless (footnote 158). Distrust among former warring factions further hinders the coordination of demining efforts in disputed regions. There have been recent cases of private citizens removing landmines near their homes and emplacing them elsewhere in areas they deem advantageous to their protection.
Location of Landmines. The areas of heaviest landmine concentrations are consistent with the regions where ethnic conflict occurred. Concentrations of minefields are found in the Zone of Separation (between the Federation and the Republika), which was the front line during the civil war; within the Zone, the Brcko area, southwest to the Zavidoci and Sarajevo, was the most heavily mined. The UN MAC estimates that there may still be 34,000 landmines in the Sarajevo area alone (footnote 159). Minefields are also found in combat zones and areas occupied by military units during the war, which are scattered throughout the country. Every canton in the Federation is contaminated by landmines; Tuxla-Podrinje, Central Bosnia, and Zenica-Doboj are the most affected, containing 41 percent of the known minefields. The Republika is less mine-affected (footnote 160). Road systems, power plants, bridges, dams, and other parts of the infrastructure were all heavily mined.
Impact. Under the terms of the Dayton Peace Accords, NATO was charged only with military demining of the areas of the country in which it needed to operate, such as roads, airfields and military bases. The former warring factions were charged with clearing landmines from the rest of the country in the first 45 days that the agreement was in force. However, little progress was made in the initial months because of winter weather, lack of funding and training, and an overall lack of motivation on the part of the factions' armed forces (footnote 161). The effect of the residual landmines as a result of heavy mining during the conflicts on Bosnia-Herzegovina's post-war recovery has been staggering. The revitalization of the industrial and agricultural sectors is dependent upon mine clearance.
Many factories, homes, and schools that were mined remain abandoned. Food production has fallen, and the government has been forced to rely on international assistance to feed its people. In the Federation, about 100 square kilometers of agricultural land are unusable because of landmines. The impact is even greater on the individual farmer, who has only a small farm with a large portion possibly infested by landmines, leaving him unable to support his family.
The male is the primary wage-earner for the family in Bosnia, and he is also the most common landmine victim. Victims who require amputation find employment scarce; those who could have returned to work often find that their jobs have been filled during their long rehabilitation process. There are no state disability benefits to supplement lost income; thus, one landmine injury can affect the standard of living for an entire family.
In 1997, more than 600,000 refugees still remained outside the country; landmines have impeded the return of many. Those who do return often find that their land has become a minefield. These returning refugees have little mine awareness, and, having been away from their communities, they do not know the location of minefields. Recently, landmines have been used in some cases to block refugees from returning.
Casualties. The most common landmine victim in Bosnia-Herzegovina is a male farmer who has returned to work his land following the war. Civilians represent 80 percent of landmine casualties overall; of these 15-20 percent are children (footnote 162). From January 1, 1996 to March 24, 1998, there were 1,085 reported casualties (244 dead and 841 injured); these statistics indicate a general decline in the number of casualties (footnote 163). There were seasonal increases during the months of March, April, and May, which are probably a result of increased agricultural activity. The actual incidence rate is debated. The ICRC reported that, in the six months following the Accords, there were 50 landmine-related casualties each month, but that, by early 1998, the rate had fallen to 30-35 per month (footnote 164); the UN, however, reports that the rate may be as high as 90 incidents per month (footnote 165). The death rate among landmine victims is lower than in most landmine-affected countries, attributable to the availability of automobiles and the existence of an extensive road system to transport casualties to medical treatment. Although the casualty rate may have fallen, it is possible that it will rise in the near future as refugees continue to return to their pre-war lands.
Country Response
After the Dayton signing, the government recognized the seriousness of the landmine problem. The IFOR, ICRC, and several other non-governmental agencies began to assist the government in assessing the problem.
Organization for Demining. At the state level, the government established two bodies for demining: the Bosnia-Herzegovina Commission for Demining (BHCD) and the Board of Donors. BHCD is the focal point of demining activities, while the Board of Donors comprises the major international participants in the mine action program. The Board is co-chaired by the Senior Military Advisor to the Office of the High Representative (OHR) and the Deputy Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General, and has representation from OHR, the EU, the Stabilization Force (SFOR), the UN, the World Bank, and the embassies of the United States and Norway. The Board advises the BHCD on mine clearance issues.
In 1996 the UN established the MAC in Sarejevo, with the first $8.5 million provided by the United States to establish it and implement its initial programs. The role of the MAC is to coordinate demining efforts in Bosnia-Herzegovina between the international community and government authorities. The MAC maintains a minefield database; helps coordinate a national mine awareness campaign; has trained, equipped and deployed deminers; and funds a local demining NGO in the Bihac region. Its headquarters is in Sarajevo, and it has regional offices in Mostar, Banja Luka, Tuzla, and Bihac, as well as a small office in Pale. The regional offices collect data at the local level and serve as the coordinators for all demining activities in their regions. The responsibility for the MAC is being transferred from the UN to the BHCD in 1998, and the UN MAC will become the B-H MAC symbolizing the country taking on more responsibility for mine clearance by using its own armed forces. A MAC will also be established in each of the two political entities.
Mine Clearance. The mine clearance effort consists of four distinct components: military, government, NGOs, and international civilian contractors. The military employs 450 soldiers for clearance under SFOR supervision; the government office of civil protection has an EOD capability and conducts some clearance; and two NGOs, NPA and HELP, have also conducted clearance operations. Five private contractors employ deminers in Bosnia-Herzegovina: Mine-Tec, ABC, DSL, BAC TEC, and RONCO. In the Canton of Tusla-Drina in November 1997, the mechanical mine clearing machine, "Minebreaker 2000," was successfully tested by the German company, Flensburger Fahrzeugbau, with German Government funds.
In the short time that mine clearance activities have been underway, 2,000 of the estimated 30,000 minefields have been cleared and 49,010 landmines have been removed. However, it is estimated that this represents only 1 percent of the affected land. The MAC estimates that, with greater help from the international community, Bosnia-Herzegovina's landmine problem could be eradicated in as few as five years. With increased funding and more advanced technology, clearing could be as rapid as 70 square kilometers per year (footnote 166). Without a concerted effort, SFOR estimates that it would take another 30 years to clear Bosnia-Herzegovina of landmines at current mine clearance rates (footnote 167). To ensure that the momentum for mine clearance is maintained, the United States trained 250 Bosnian deminers in 1996 and will conduct another train-the-trainer program in 1998.
Mine Awareness. The level of mine awareness varies by region. People who reside in more urban areas, such as Sarajevo, have more knowledge of the potential dangers of landmines than those in rural areas. The UN MAC conducts some mine awareness programs but, more importantly, attempts to coordinate a national campaign among all the organizations conducting mine awareness. The ICRC and UNICEF operate the two major mine awareness programs, but there are currently more than 30 agencies involved. By means of an extensive media campaign, including posters, leaflets, brochures, and TV and radio spots, the programs have targeted communities to educate the people about the specific dangers in their local areas. The programs have brought mine awareness into the classroom, which is an effective channel to reach children, given the high rate of school attendance. The U.S. Government, Time-Warner/DC Comics, and UNICEF have distributed a special edition of a Superman Comic Book devoted to mine awareness. Since 1997, the WFP has been involved in mine awareness training as part of the program support to small-scale rehabilitation projects. The WFP has supported a local NGO, MEDEX, with part of their food requirements for organizing training camps for children. Some 3,000 children aged 8 to 18 have already participated in the week-long training camps on mine awareness. MEDEX plans to retrain 2,500 children by the end of 1998, which WFP will again support. Adults have been more difficult to reach than children, because they have been found to be indifferent toward landmines. A 1995 VVAF survey interviewed 873 households and found that one out of three had received some information about landmines (footnote 168), but a lack of coordination among programs has led to some confusion and contradictory messages (footnote 169).
Victim Assistance. Prior to the war, Bosnia-Herzegovina had a well-developed health care system, but the war damaged much of it. Every municipality has a health center that provides basic treatment and arranges transportation to hospitals for the more seriously injured. There are surgical hospitals in both the Federation and the Republika that have the skills to perform amputations, but they have very limited resources and are in need of more training for the staff, renovations, and more equipment. The extensive injuries sustained in landmine accidents require the application of an inordinate amount of resources at the expense of non-landmine-related patients.
Overall, there seems to be an adequate supply of good prostheses for survivors who require amputation, and limb-fitting centers are planned which would provide for the lifelong needs of amputees. The financial contribution by the victim varies by hospital; some are required to pay nothing. HI, Landmines Survivors Network (LSN), and several other NGOs have begun programs to offer jobs for the disabled. WHO is conducting a media campaign to educate the populace about disabilities.
Other International Involvement
Bosnia-Herzegovina is dependent upon funding from the international community to finance mine clearance programs. The World Bank's $67 million Emergency Landmines Clearance Project began many of the initial demining efforts in the country. The EU, the United States, the World Bank, Italy, the UN (footnote 170), and other donors financed the project, which was implemented by joint ventures between the government and local and international demining companies. The EU has contributed $6.7 million to support the capabilities of the civil protection sector and has granted $720,000 for several demining activities, including training,
clearance, and UXO disposal. The work has been done through contracts awarded to commercial companies, such as the German NGO HELP. In addition to the grant to the World Bank project, the United States allocated $15 million for a demining program which was carried out by RONCO, that concluded in 1997. The SFOR has also funded mine clearance and is building information centers, targeted at refugees, throughout Bosnia-Herzegovina.
Outlook for the Future
Bosnia-Herzegovina's demining program continues to improve as the military, government, civilian, and international sectors all lend their support. Success in clearing minefields has been evident and will continue to focus on the areas where refugees and farmers are returning and business is attempting to resume. The challenge, however, remains formidable. In order to maintain the momentum, increased international community support is needed. Mine awareness programs have been effective and have caused casualty rates to fall. However, in order to sustain this downward trend, programs must target returning refugees who have very limited mine awareness, especially adults because of their apathy toward landmines. Improvements to the basic health care system, as a backdrop to victim assistance, are essential. With continued international cooperation and support, the demining program should continue to progress.
Croatia is located in southeastern Europe between Bosnia-Herzegovina to the southeast, Serbia to the east, Hungary to the north, and Slovenia to the northwest. The total area is 56,538 square kilometers, and the geography ranges from low mountains near the Adriatic coast on the west to flat plains along the Hungarian border. The total population of 4,664,710 consists of 78 percent Croat, 12 percent Serb, and 10 percent other ethnic groups. The Republic of Croatia was the second most industrialized and prosperous republic in Yugoslavia, but the economic infrastructure -- bridges, factories, and power lines -- was severely damaged during the war. Reconstruction of key elements of the infrastructure has begun, in order to return Croatia to its pre-war economic prosperity (footnote 171).
Landmine Problem
Croatia's war of independence from Yugoslavia along with heavy mining of the country began in 1991. Landmines were laid primarily as defensive measures to prevent the Yugoslav Army from advancing; nearly one-quarter of the terrain has either a landmine or UXO problem. The government is struggling to meet the enormous financial burden of both post-war reconstruction and demining.
Characterization of the Problem. There are more than 400,000 landmines and 3,000 tons of UXO in Croatia, scattered over approximately 11,910 square kilometers (footnote 172). More than 72,000 antitank mines and 121,116 antipersonnel mines have been identified (footnote 173). Previous landmine estimates were as high as several million, but these estimates were based upon pre-war stockpiles and are not supported by surveys (footnote 174). Fewer than 10 different types of antitank and antipersonnel mines have been discovered, the majority manufactured in the former Yugoslavia. Mine clearance is a difficult task, because landmines were laid without consistent markings or mapping; the soil contains large amounts of scrap metal; the landmines contain little metal content; and many landmines have been laid near areas that were damaged during the war. Thus, the infested areas are littered with debris, which must first be cleared; the debris itself may contain landmines and UXO. In addition, deminers do not have access to modern equipment.
Location of Landmines. The areas of heaviest contamination are consistent with the confrontation lines during the war. The most affected areas are eastern and western Slavonia and the former Serb-controlled Krajina. More than one-half of the total infested area is in Slavonia. The areas on the coast, north of Split, are also heavily mined. Landmines have been found in areas of economic importance, such as along railroad lines and pipelines and near utility stations.
Impact. The presence of landmines has had a harsh impact on the economy. The traditional rural household is based on self-sufficient food production, and many fields must be cleared before they can be cultivated (footnote 175). According to the Ministry of Reconstruction, agriculture has suffered losses of more than $200 million since 1991 (footnote 176); the agricultural areas of eastern Slavonia and Lika have been most affected. Heavily mined forests in western Slavonia have caused millions in lost revenues each year, and many factories near the confrontation lines were destroyed or damaged by landmines (footnote 177). The government is faced with a dilemma: non-functioning factories, uncultivated land, and other damaged infrastructure will cost the country more financially than demining operations, yet reconstruction cannot take place until the land has been cleared of landmines.
More than 100,000 Croatians, both ethnic Croat and ethnic Serb, were displaced during the war and more than 300,000 refugees are living in other countries. These people cannot return until the country has been rebuilt and homes and jobs are available for them; the policy of the government is not to encourage them to return to areas that are mine-infested. However, lack of an alternative often forces them back to their former communities.
Casualties. Between 1992 and 1998, there were 125 deaths and 552 injuries attributed to landmines. The incident rate decreased from 1994-1996, but rose slightly in 1997. The casualty rate may continue to increase, as refugees and IDPs return home to regions that were heavily mined during the war.
Country Response
When the fighting subsided, the government recognized the need for mine removal as part of its post-war reconstruction; it attempted to resolve the landmine problem using its own assets and finances. No major action was taken until 1996 when the government passed the Law on Demining, which was designed to develop a system for the implementation of demining activities. Under this law, the Commission for Issues of Mine Clearance was established under the Ministry of the Interior to coordinate national mine-related issues, and a government-owned company, MUNGOS, was formed from the Civilian Defense Force to serve as the national demining agency. MUNGOS was the only agency authorized to conduct demining activities in the country; there was no open contracting, and any international assistance had to be channeled through MUNGOS (footnote 178).
A new demining law was passed in February 1998 to allow more international involvement in demining. This law allows organizations that meet the criteria of the International Standards for Humanitarian Mine Clearance Operations to conduct demining activities in the country. Under the new law, the Advisory Committee replaced the Commission for Issues and is now the government body tasked with mine clearance. The Croatian Mine Action Center was created with overall responsibility for all aspects of demining. MUNGOS is being privatized but remains the largest demining company in Croatia.
Organization for Demining. The UN established a MAC in 1996 to assist the government in its continued development of a national demining capacity. The MAC does not operate mine action programs, but it does provide advice to the government on demining activities and maintains a database of mine-related information. In addition to the central office in Zagreb, there are regional offices in Knin, Vukovar, Daruvar, and Karlovac. The UN and the government signed a Memorandum of Agreement in the summer of 1997 that provides for the merging of operations. The merger was completed in June 1998; the government will now retain control of operations, and the UN will remain in an advisory role.
Mine Clearance. MUNGOS employs almost 200 deminers and, in the interim until the government assumes full control of operations, continues to coordinate all clearance efforts. The police have been trained in EOD and are tasked with UXO removal; they currently have nearly 100 personnel assigned to clearance. The Army Center for Demining also has more than 600 soldiers working in demining activities. MUNGOS has contracts with several smaller agencies, including the Serbian TNT and DESK, which are conducting mine clearance in eastern Slavonia. To date, 6,000 minefields have been identified, but this may represent only about half the actual number. Mine clearance efforts have resulted in the removal of more than 8,000 landmines and 4-6 tons of UXO, clearing approximately 30 square kilometers of land (footnote 179).
Mine Awareness. The ICRC and UNICEF are the most prominent organizations conducting mine awareness programs in Croatia. UNICEF began its program in late 1991 and, since then, has been supporting the Ministry of Education in mine awareness. The ICRC began its program in March 1996; it is conducted using volunteers from the Croatian Red Cross. The two organizations have spread mine awareness through campaigns using posters, leaflets, TV, and radio spots, stressing local awareness and traveling into communities in mine-affected areas, and conducting seminars on the specific dangers in those regions; these campaigns seem to have been successful (footnote 180). Mine awareness programs had previously been conducted in refugee camps, but the government has terminated them.
Victim Assistance. Croatia has an extensive and generous medical and social system to care for landmine victims.
International Involvement
Up to this point, the government has financed essentially all demining activities with some exceptions; Germany, Norway, Switzerland, and several others nations have provided some aid, and the UN VTF for Assistance in Mine Clearance has disbursed or committed more than $4 million to Croatia between 1994 and 1998. The old demining law was incompatible with the World Bank's policy requiring international bids for demining financed by a World Bank loan, but the new law allowing more international participation accommodates such initiatives as the Bank's $34 million Emergency Project for Transportation and Demining. As a result, international organizations are currently bidding on contracts to clear landmines from major infrastructure; the first contracts are for the demining of 20 bridges and more than 70 kilometers of railway. The United States is exploring the possibility of developing assistance programs to provide training and technical assistance.
Outlook for the Future
Croatia's young, but active, demining program has seen steady progress toward the building of a national demining capacity. Control of demining operations has now passed from the UN to the government which, along with MUNGOS, the police, and the army, has begun to clear landmines and UXO. The greatest obstacle to demining has been a lack of funding, but the government's adoption of the new, more open, demining law has been a positive step toward an infusion of international funds. To reduce casualties, mine awareness programs must target refugees, who remain the highest risk for landmine accidents. Future efforts should also include the provision of proper equipment for deminers and new technology to discriminate between landmines and battlefield debris. With increased support from the international community, Croatia should be able to clear mine-infested areas, a further step toward rebuilding its infrastructure.
Footnotes
153. CIA, 1997 World Factbook, Bosnia and Herzegovina, http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/bk.html, March 20, 1998.
154. AMEMBASSY Sarajevo message, subject: Antipersonnel Landmines: Updating Hidden Killers, R301748 March 1998, 1.
155. UNDHA, Landmine Database. Country Report: Bosnia-Herzegovina, http://www.un.org/depts/landmine/ country/bosniaan.htm, February 24, 1998.
156. Idem.
157. ICRC, The Silent Menace, Landmines in Bosnia and Herzegovina, http://www.icrc.org/icrcnews.nsf, April 10, 1998.
158. UNDHA, Landmine Database. Country Report: Bosnia-Herzegovina, op. cit.
159. Starr, Barbara, "NATO Rethinks Mine Clearance in Bosnia," Jane's Defense Weekly, June 17, 1998, 29.
160. ICRC, The Silent Menace, op. cit.
161. Starr, op. cit.
162. Idem.
163. AMEMBASSY Sarajevo, op. cit., 3.
164. ICRC, The Silent Menace, op. cit.
165. UN General Assembly, Assistance in Mine Clearance, op. cit., 16.
166. International Crisis Group, "Ridding Bosnia of Landmines," http://www.into-crisis-group.org/projects/ bosnia/report/bh25rep1.htm, March 24, 1998.
167. Starr, op. cit.
168. ICRC, The Silent Menace, op. cit.
169. UNDHA, op. cit.
170. The UN VTF for Assistance in Mine Clearance disbursed or committed approximately $10 million between 1994-1998 to Bosnia-Herzegovina.
171. CIA, 1997 World Fact Book, Croatia, http://www.odci/cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/bk.html, March 20, 1998.
172. Mines Advisory Group, Preliminary Assessment: Bosnia Hercegovina & Croatia, undated, 16.
173. UN Mine Action Center Croatia, Facsimile Memorandum to SAIC, Subject: Mine Situation in Croatia, March 19, 1998, 3.
174. Idem.
175. Slavko Baric, "Demining Croatia," Landmines Magazine. Demining News from the United Nations, Vol. 2.3, October 1997.
176. UNDHA, Landmine Database. Country Report: Croatia, February 21, 1997, http://www.un.org/depts/ landmine/country/croatia.htm.
177. UN Mine Action Center Croatia, op. cit., 1.
178. U.S. Department State, Landmine Database. Comprehensive Report: Croatia, August 26, 1997.
179. UN Mine Action Center Croatia, op. cit., 3.
180. UNICEF, Antipersonnel Landmines: Policies, Strategies and Programmes, op. cit., undated.
[End of Section]
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