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Department Seal Hidden Killers 1998: The Global Landmine Crisis

Chapter IV: The Contribution of Technology


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"We need to intensify research into better methods of demining . . . the most common tool we have for detecting landmines is still a stick attached to a person's arm."
                                     --Ambassador Karl Inderfurth,
                                     U.S. Special Representative of the President and
                                     Secretary of State for Global Humanitarian Demining,
                                     December 8, 1997

Despite the best efforts of all who engage in humanitarian demining throughout the world, getting landmines out of the ground remains a slow, dangerous and labor-intensive process. Since the Second World War, technology advances have strongly favored mine laying over mine clearance. Today APL can be made smaller and cheaper and with so little metal in them as to be very often undetectable by standard mine detectors. The cost differential in time and resources between procuring and emplacing a mine and detecting and neutralizing it is drastically against the deminer.

Technology has the potential to help reduce this imbalance and create new advantages for the deminer. National governments, NGOs, and private companies are pursuing a number of promising new technologies. While it is unlikely that any "silver bullet" demining tool will ever be found to make humanitarian demining quick, safe, and easy, there is promise for vast improvements in detection, clearance, and neutralization tools. The immediate objective is to exploit existing technology in order to put better equipment into deminers' hands through rapid prototyping, while the ultimate objective is to apply new technologies that offer quantum improvements in effectiveness. In both instances, the goal is to make humanitarian demining safer, more user-friendly, and cost-effective.

One of the key international technology challenges for humanitarian demining is cooperation among countries, companies, and organizations. Cooperation can improve information sharing among researchers, reduce wasteful duplication of effort, and ultimately accelerate the identification of more effective demining tools and equipment. While self-interest is a reality of economic competition among commercial companies, there are encouraging examples of a more cooperative and collaborative spirit among governments and international organizations included in the humanitarian demining community.

In March 1998, the UN issued a policy paper, The Application of Technology to Mine Action. It recommended the adoption of a formal, systematic, and auditable process of assessing the availability, suitability, and affordability of technology. It concluded by identifying the need for international cooperation in technology assessment, equipment trials, standards, and common protocols for these assessments and evaluations and the need for enabling technologies such as common information tools.

The European Commission and the United States have agreed to coordinate their efforts in three of the areas identified by the UN, and are pursuing participation from other international bodies. The three cooperative proposals of the United States and the European Commission are:

These initiatives are elements of an integral, holistic approach to accelerating delivery of effective, safe, and affordable mine action technology and equipment to deminers. Without standards, there can be no objective assessment. Without test, evaluation, and certification facilities operating with reference to these standards, no effective, reliable implementation of new equipment will be possible. Without demonstration projects, conducted quickly, those engaged in humanitarian demining will not see the promise of new technology. Only by integrating these elements into a joint initiative can the efforts of the international community succeed in timely elimination of the APL threat to civilians within years, not decades.

As a contribution to technology cooperation, this chapter reports on the current state of humanitarian demining R&D in three areas: detection, clearance and neutralization.

Detection

The major problem in mine clearing is discrimination. Modern APL are inexpensive, small, and made of various substances, thereby making it nearly impossible for the common metal detector to distinguish them from metallic debris. Landmines can also be made of plastic which is not detected by the metal detector. The variety of fuses used has progressed from simple pressure sensors to magnetic, light-activated, electric, and heat sensors, further complicating detection. Despite the advances in landmines, however, the means for detecting them has not changed appreciably since World War II. The majority of mine detection operations today are accomplished manually, predominantly with metal detectors and, ultimately, with a 25-centimeter-long non-metallic probe to positively identify a buried object. This method is slow, hazardous, and expensive, but it is also reliable and currently the only method capable of meeting the United Nations' 99.6 percent clearance goal. Consequently, it is clear that technologies must be developed that speed the detection process and better protect the mine clearers.

Since finding and identifying landmines are the most difficult parts of the humanitarian demining process, most R&D is being directed toward improving detection. The goal is to automate the detection task, increase the detection rate, improve the ability to positively discriminate the landmine from metallic debris, and protect the operator. For the most part, technologies being pursued for detection have been developed in other industries and are being tailored for demining. Some of the innovative technologies are discussed in the following paragraphs.

Ground-penetrating Radar (GPR). GPR emits electromagnetic waves into the ground which are reflected, measured, and, based on their variations, detect the presence of different types of buried objects. Detecting small objects, such as APL, requires using a high-frequency range which in turn limits penetration depth, increases clutter, and causes false alarms including false negatives. Using GPR is a slow process, and moisture as well as clay materials degrade its performance. Research is underway to overcome these limitations, as well as to develop portable and vehicle-mounted solutions.

Infrared (IR) Detection. Because of the material from which they are made, landmines retain or release heat at a different rate than their surroundings. IR cameras or sensing devices can measure that difference and potentially detect the presence of mine-like objects. However, IR systems can be affected by weather conditions and background environment, as well as by the size and composition of the landmine. IR sensors also have difficulty detecting deeply buried objects and are currently limited to non-foliated terrain. New discoveries may provide limited utility in foliated areas. With positive identification so difficult, IR is best used as an indicator of the presence of landmines.

Advanced Electromagnetic Induction (EMI). The most common EMI device is a metal detector, which measures the disturbance of an emitted electromagnetic field by an object in the ground. However, the detector cannot distinguish between a landmine and other metallic objects, and its effectiveness diminishes rapidly with an increase in distance (stand-off) to the target. Studies have been initiated to determine if it is possible for improved metal detectors to overcome these limitations. Use of pulsed waveform and multi-frequency emissions are modifications that may improve the capability of EMI devices to distinguish landmines from other metallic objects, but even pulsed induction systems are severely limited in their ability to locate minimum-metal landmines buried in magnetic or heavily mineralized soils.

Acoustic Sensors. Ultrasound detection is the emission of a sound wave into a medium to measure the difference in the reflection of materials with varying acoustical properties. This technology is very similar to the sonar systems used in submarines and is best suited for wet areas or water since the sound waves transmit more readily in that medium. An area with rice fields would be a good candidate for this technology. The technology works best when used in extremely close proximity to the target, but it would still have difficulty in discriminating between rocks and landmines. Other acoustic sensors rely on physical contact of the probe with the target to characterize its composition.

Nuclear Radiation. Thermal Neutron Activation (TNA), Nuclear Quadrapole Resonance (NQR), Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), and X-ray backscatter imaging are examples of technologies that detect explosive substances in the mine rather than try to identify the mine by its shape or casing. All these methods rely on the response of explosive material when exposed to radio waves as detection cues. However, they are extremely bulky and expensive, and require the scanned material to be between the source and the transmitter. NQR technology is presently in use at some airports in baggage screening devices.

Chemical Detection. Most detection devices currently in use attempt to find landmines by focusing on the difference between the landmines and their surroundings. Chemical detection, on the other hand, focuses on the one element unique to all landmines, the explosive material. This is not unlike relying on a dog's keen sense of smell to search for landmines, which is a current technique. However, there are limitations to using dogs for detection. To reduce the limitations, there is ongoing research to develop sensor systems that replicate the dog's capability to detect trace explosives. In 1997, the U.S. Defense Department's Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) embarked on a three-year, $25 million program to develop the "electronic dog's nose program," a technology to detect landmines by means of their chemical signature.

Bacteriological. This involves the genetic construction of microorganisms which recognize compounds such as explosives and generate genes in response to that compound. The microorganisms are applied by spraying the ground to contact trace explosives, causing areas with explosive-like compounds to produce light or a fluorescent effect. Detection is then accomplished by use of hand-held detectors, visual inspection, or photo-detectors. However, weather and environmental conditions pose significant obstacles to employing this method.

No matter which type of sensor is used, there must be a means of moving it as it searches for landmines. A portable approach to sensor movement is slow and hazardous for the individual. Vehicles, even though advertised as mine-resistant, may not thoroughly protect the occupants and may be of only limited usefulness in off-road operations. Research in robotics and teleoperated vehicles for use as multi-sensor platforms is currently being pursued by both academic institutions and commercial groups. Unmanned aerial platforms are also being developed and show promise, particularly in surveying for minefields.

The detection technologies described above are presently in varying stages of development. No single device should be viewed as a potential cure-all in mine detection, but rather as one of an array of sensors that are available. All will require an information processing center to interpret and process the data gathered. Mapping devices to accurately display and record detection activity, such as the Global Positioning System (GPS) and various types of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), are becoming part of the process. However, these systems tend to increase bulk and can restrict use; efforts to reduce their size, increase their ruggedness, simplify their operation, and improve their mobility are ongoing.

Clearance

Clearance is the process of removing, destroying, or neutralizing landmines to make the land suitable for other uses. A mechanical means of mine clearing is required to speed up the process and make it safer for operators. Most of the known mechanical clearance means have been developed for military use and are not designed for area clearance. Mechanical devices are expensive and difficult to maintain (particularly in countries with limited infrastructure), and many require prime movers. A description of six types of mechanical clearance equipment follows.

Ploughs/Rakes. Ploughs, usually mounted on the front of a dozer or other prime mover, have been used for cutting lanes through minefields for some time; they simply push landmines aside and leave them in the berms created on either side of a route to be removed later. To eliminate mine-infested berms, a Berm Processing Assembly (BPA) has recently been developed by the U.S. Army Communications and Electronics Command's Night Vision and Electronic Sensors Directorate at Fort Belvoir, Virginia. The BPA picks up the soil in the berm and separates the landmines, which are then destroyed by deminers.

Rakes are designed with tines that pick up landmines and let dirt or sand pass through, thereby segregating the landmines. Rakes must be mounted on a prime mover and are useful only in desert or beach areas.

Rollers. Rollers are usually pushed or pulled over terrain by another vehicle with the hope that the pressure exerted by their weight will either crush or detonate landmines. Terrain and the environment can limit their effectiveness.

Rotary Drum Rotary Tiller. This device consists of a rotating drum or drums with rotating metal teeth similar to a rock crusher mounted on its circumference. It can be mounted on a prime mover such as a mine-hardened vehicle. Some tillers are able to reach landmines as deep as 50 centimeters. However, these machines are large and some weigh as much as 45 tons. This limits their effectiveness in some types of terrain, and maintenance costs (e.g., to replace the teeth) are high and thus may prove to be prohibitive.

Flails. Flails have been used primarily by the military to clear lanes through minefields, and several versions are deployed in humanitarian demining operations. They consist of large chains connected to a rotating drum that beat the ground either detonating or destroying the landmines. This machine is large, expensive, difficult to maintain, and can damage the terrain by removing the topsoil. Its maintenance costs are high, since chains destroyed by landmines or wear must be replaced. Smaller versions of the flail, mini-flails, have been developed that are not only less expensive, but can also be remotely controlled, although they lack the capability to destroy or detonate blast-hardened landmines.

Mine-proof Vehicles. These are vehicles that are hardened to withstand explosions. Developed for military use in force protection and road clearing operations, they are useful in humanitarian demining as protection when transporting mine clearing teams. Other uses are as prime movers for ploughs, rakes, and sensors, or as a clearing/proofing method to ensure that all landmines have been removed by criss-crossing a cleared area.

Robotics. Robots range from modular components that can convert any mine clearing vehicle to a remote-controlled device, to prodding tools connected to a robotic arm. The technology advances are in the areas of teleoperated backhoes, mini-flails, road clearing vehicles, and military equipment. Research into individual, mine-seeking robots is in the early stages with numerous institutions and companies involved. In the short term, it appears that the best use of robotics will be as vehicles with arrays of detection sensors and area mine clearance devices.

Mechanical mine clearing alone cannot meet the UN's 99.6 percent clearance goal. However, machines can speed the clearance process when used in combination with manual clearers, and they may also be useful in quickly verifying that an area is clear of landmines so that manual clearers can concentrate on those areas that are most likely to be infested.

Neutralization (footnote 1)

Once landmines have been found and identified, they must either be destroyed or neutralized. The most common methods in use are to detonate the landmine by means of pressure or explosives, or to remove and destroy it later. Recent developments of explosive foam, mine marking and neutralization foam, shaped charges, and chemical neutralization are promising methods that bear consideration for on-site destruction of landmines. Both types of foam have been used in the field with some success, while the shaped charge and chemical methods are still in the late development stage. Currently, uncovering buried objects for identification and classification is accomplished by personnel using a trowel or knife to carefully dig them up. An excavation system that uses supersonic air has proven effective for shallow excavation with less fear of detonation.

Explosive Foam. This product is a nitromethane-based explosive foam and is used as a blasting agent to neutralize landmines in restrictive areas. It is dispensed from either a backpack system or an aerosol can.

Mine Marking and Neutralization Foam. This is a polyurethane foam that is dispensed as a liquid near and around a mine. It rises and gels to form a solid that encapsulates the mine and may render a pressure fuse inoperable. One particular foam hardens to a fluorescent red color for marking.

Shaped Charge. This is a small, concentrated explosive device that utilizes the Munroe effect to destroy surface and buried landmines.

Chemical Neutralization. This involves penetrating the mine casing and delivering a chemical into the mine. The chemical destroys the explosive without detonating the mine.

Technology has become the solution to many long-standing problems, including humanitarian demining efforts. Many developments are on the verge of breaking through to solve the identification problem, and there have been significant efforts made(although with less success to date(in the areas of clearance and neutralization. Other efforts include developing protective garments for mine clearers, mine awareness programs, information fusion and mapping systems, and multi-sensor-arrayed vehicles. Solutions are being pursued virtually around the globe in the research facilities of academia, government, and commercial institutions.

But technology is not a panacea for all the ills of demining. Any single breakthrough should be viewed as yet another tool available for use in the demining process, and it may not be appropriate under all conditions. Furthermore, careful study of the limitations of any tool with regard to the location and environment is critical; not all high-tech solutions may be workable. Fragile computer-supported devices are probably not compatible for use in a hot, dusty, or wet environment, and EMI devices may not be effective in soil with a high iron content. The knowledge required to operate a machine may not match the skill level of the deminers, many of whom are drawn from the local populace. The cost of maintenance and the availability of logistics support are important to sustain operations. All of these considerations, and more, must be taken into account before a decision to procure and use any device is made.

While current technology may be effective, it is far too limited to fully address the huge mine problem facing the world. New R&D programs underway in several countries show promise for new methods which are safer and more effective. The international community must act now to foster and further these research programs in order to provide mine clearance personnel in the field a better tool than a sharpened stick.

Footnotes

1. The U.S. Humanitarian Demining Program requires that all APL found be destroyed, not just neutralized.

[End of Document]

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