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U.S. Participation in the United Nations
Released by the Bureau of International Organization Affairs,
November 1996
The 50th UN General Assembly overwhelmingly
adopted, by a vote of 148 (U.S.) to 4, with 1 abstention, the
positive resolution that expressed full support for the achievements
of the peace process and welcomed international support for the
economic and social development of the Palestinian people. (Resolution
50/21.) This was the third such positive resolution on the Middle
East peace process for the United Nations. The United States continued
to oppose a number of the perennial resolutions on the Middle
East (Syrian Golan, Question of Palestine, Israeli Settlements,
Palestinian Right to Self-Determination, Israeli Practices). The
United States opposed these resolutions because they addressed
permanent status issues that are subject to negotiation between
the parties, because they advocated activities or language incompatible
with the progress that has been achieved in the Middle East peace
process, or because they expended resources that could be used
in better ways to improve the lives of the Palestinian people.
Though the General Assembly continued to adopt these largely obsolete
resolutions by large majorities, there were some indications from
the voting results that member states were becoming increasingly
tired of dealing with these relics of the past.
On May 17, in the Security Council, the United
States exercised its first veto since 1990 on a proposed resolution
that would have declared invalid Israel's expropriation of land
in East Jerusalem. In doing so, the United States prevented the
Council from declaring itself on a permanent status issue (Jerusalem)
in accordance with its long held view that issues such as this
must be decided in negotiations by the parties concerned. As Permanent
Representative Madeleine Albright said in her explanation of vote,
"passage of such a resolution would have had the Council
intrude upon the agreed political process set out in the Declaration
of Principles.''
The UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) was
established by Security Council resolution 425 in March 1978 after
the first Israeli invasion of Lebanon. UNIFIL is deployed in southern
Lebanon and at year's end numbered about 4,739. The Security Council
unanimously extended the UNIFIL mandate at 6-month intervals (January
and July) during 1995. (Resolutions 974 and 1006.)
The UN Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF)
was established after the 1973 Arab-Israeli war to oversee the
disengagement of Israeli and Syrian forces on the Golan Heights
in accordance with the Israeli-Syrian agreement of May 1974. UNDOF
comprises about 1,000 troops, most of whom are deployed on the
Golan Heights within and close to the area of separation between
Israeli and Syrian forces. In May and November, the Council unanimously
extended UNDOF's mandate for 6-month periods. (Resolutions 996
and 1024.)
In line with overall UN reform efforts, the
United States supported the administrative streamlining undertaken
by UNIFIL and UNDOF in 1995 and supports further measures as long
as these do not affect operational effectiveness.
In omnibus resolution 50/28, the General Assembly
adopted seven specific resolutions on the UN Relief and Works
Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA). Resolution
50/28 A on assistance to Palestinian refugees, which contained
the mandate renewal for UNRWA, passed by a vote of 145 to 1, with
1 abstention (U.S.). The United States abstained on the resolution
to demonstrate disapproval that the resolution included reference
to resolution 194, which deals with the return of refugees--a
permanent status issue that should be resolved between the parties.
The member states of the European Union (EU) voted in favor of
the resolution because they believed that UNRWA's operational
capacity and extensive experience would help consolidate the peace
process. However, the EU voiced regret in an explanation of vote
in the Fourth Committee that a solution could not be reached regarding
insistence by some delegations to include reference to resolution
194 in the same paragraph as the renewal mandate. This would have
allowed the resolution to be supported by all states.
Resolution 50/28 B on "The working group
on financing of the UN Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees
in the Near East'' was the only resolution adopted by consensus.
Other resolutions and voting results are as follows: "Persons
displaced as a result of the June 1967 and subsequent hostilities''
was adopted 147 to 2 (U.S.), with 0 abstentions (Resolution 50/28
C); "Offers by member states of grants and scholarships for
higher education, including vocational training, for Palestine
refugees'' was adopted 150 (U.S.) to 0, with 1 abstention (Resolution
50/28 D); "Operations of the UN Relief and Works Agency for
Palestine Refugees in the Near East'' was adopted 146 to 2 (U.S.),
with 3 abstentions (Resolution 50/28 E); "Revenues derived
from Palestine refugees' properties'' was adopted 98 to 2 (U.S.),
with 48 abstentions (Resolution 50/28 F); and "University
of Jerusalem `Al-Quds' for Palestine refugees was adopted 148
to 2 (U.S.), with 2 abstentions. (Resolution 50/28 G.)
During six bimonthly reviews, the UN Security
Council continued to determine that Iraq had failed to comply
fully with the series of resolutions that followed Iraq's invasion
of Kuwait in August 1990. The United States regards Iraq's failure
to comply with resolutions of the Council, including the refusal
to cooperate on weapons of mass destruction (WMD) issues, the
failure to account for missing Kuwaitis, the failure to return
stolen Kuwaiti property, and the failure to end support for and
participation in terrorism, as a continuing threat to peace and
stability in the region. In addition, Iraq's goal of achieving
sanctions relief was seriously set back by revelations regarding
the extent to which Iraq had lied about its past and current WMD
programs. The United States and the Security Council continued
to cooperate closely with the UN Special Commission (UNSCOM) and
the International Atomic Energy Agency tasked with overseeing
the destruction and monitoring of Iraq's WMD programs.
Responding to the Government of Iraq's blatant
disdain for the welfare of its people, the United States cosponsored
UN Security Council resolution 986, which, if implemented, would
permit the Iraqi Government to export 1 billion dollars worth
of petroleum and petroleum products every 90 days in return for
needed humanitarian goods. Claiming that its sovereignty was impinged
by certain requirements of the resolution, the Government of Iraq
continued to reject implementation of the resolution at the end
of 1995.
On February 8 the Security Council by unanimous
vote passed resolution 976, which authorized the creation of the
UN Angola Verification Mission III (UNAVEM III) to assist the
Government of Angola and the opposition group, National Union
for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA), to implement their
November 1994 peace accords. This initial 6-month mandate authorized
a total strength of 7,600 personnel, anticipated that the operation
would last 2 years, and called for immediate deployment of planning
and support elements only. Deployment of larger units would be
"phased'' according to the development of the situation in
Angola.
UNAVEM III deployments were slowed by poor,
heavily-mined roads, but the parties' general adherence to the
ceasefire and their overall efforts toward peace led the Security
Council to renew the mandate for another 6 months, by unanimous
passage of resolution 1008 on August 7. By the end of 1995, there
were about 6,500 UNAVEM III personnel in Angola (none from the
United States), and preparations were complete for the opening
of the first camps that would house and process demobilizing the
soldiers of the UNITA.
The situation in Burundi caused increasing
concern in 1995, as extremists attempted to undermine the Burundi
Government, and ethnic violence continued, including massacres
that took hundreds of lives. The UN Security Council issued a
presidential statement on January 31 reaffirming its support for
the 1994 Convention of Government and deploring attempts to overthrow
the Burundi Government. The Council sent a mission to Burundi
in February, which recommended establishment of an International
Commission of Inquiry to investigate the 1993 assassination of
President Ndadaye and ethnic massacres that followed. The Council
issued presidential statements on March 9 and 29 endorsing that
recommendation and deploring the ethnic killings. The UN Commission
on Human Rights called for investigation of the killings and for
the placement of UN human rights observers in Burundi. With the
United States as chief sponsor, the Security Council unanimously
passed resolution 1012 on August 28 establishing the Commission
of Inquiry, and the Commission began work in Burundi on October
29. The UN General Assembly adopted resolutions on the situation
in Burundi and on special emergency assistance for the economic
recovery and reconstruction of Burundi. (Resolutions 50/159 and
50/58 K.) On December 29 the Secretary General reported that the
situation in Burundi continued to deteriorate.
In late 1993, approximately 330 military observers
of the UN Observer Mission in Liberia (UNOMIL) were deployed to
Liberia to help implement the Cotonou Accord, along with the Economic
Community of West African States (ECOWAS) Ceasefire Monitoring
Group (ECOMOG). While some progress was made on implementation
of the accord and the disarmament of combatants in early 1994,
by spring and summer serious fighting among Liberia's warring
factions had resumed and the Secretary General began reducing
the number of UNOMIL observers (which reached a low of about 50
by summer 1995). Because a new ceasefire went into effect December
28, 1994, the Security Council extended UNOMIL's mandate until
April 13, 1995, by resolution 972, unanimously adopted on January
13, 1995. Although fighting soon broke out again, on April 13,
the Council extended UNOMIL to June 30 (Resolution 985, adopted
unanimously) on recommendation of the Secretary General.
At an ECOWAS summit held in Abuja May 17-20,
1995, and intended to restart the peace process, the leaders of
Liberia's parties were asked to conduct consultations and reach
final agreement on the composition of the Council of State, which
was to form a new transitional government. Welcoming the ECOWAS
effort, on June 30, the Security Council by resolution 1001 (adopted
unanimously) decided to extend UNOMIL until September 15 but conditioned
any further extensions on a successful outcome of the ECOWAS initiative.
The leaders of all Liberia's parties met again in Abuja and on
August 19 agreed to the establishment of a comprehensive ceasefire
as of August 26; the establishment of a new six-member Council
of State; and a schedule for implementing disarmament and demobilization
of combatants and holding national elections in August 1996.
In recognition of the achievements under the
Abuja Accord, on September 15, the Security Council unanimously
adopted resolution 1014 extending the mandate of UNOMIL until
January 31, 1996. Then, in response to the Secretary General's
recommendations and to continued progress in the peace process,
on November 10 by resolution 1020 (adopted unanimously), the Council
authorized the Secretary General to bring UNOMIL's strength back
up to a maximum of 160. While progress continued to be made and
the ceasefire generally held, at the end of the year the Secretary
General reported that implementation of the Abuja Accord had fallen
behind schedule and that there had been recurrent skirmishes between
two of the armed factions.
During 1995 the Security Council reviewed sanctions
adopted against Libya in resolution 748 (1992) every 120 days.
Given Libya's noncompliance with requirements imposed by this
and other resolutions, the Council decided each time that sanctions
should remain in effect without change. In addition, the U.S.
Government announced an award for the arrest and capture of the
two Libyans wanted in connection with the Pan Am 103 bombing.
The United States, along with the United Kingdom and France, maintained
their joint position that there would be no compromise on the
demands of justice and that Libya would have to comply fully with
its obligations.
The United States, along with other members
of the Council, was also successful in effecting the withdrawal
by Libya of its bid to assume a nonpermanent seat on the Security
Council in 1996-1997.
The UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR)
has been in Rwanda since 1993. Following the genocide and civil
war which erupted after the Presidents of Rwanda and Burundi were
killed in a plane crash in April 1994, UNAMIR II was deployed
in August 1994 to facilitate refugee repatriation and provide
security for delivery of relief supplies and humanitarian operations.
Pursuant to Security Council resolution 997 of June 9, 1995 (adopted
unanimously), which extended the mandate of UNAMIR until December
8, UNAMIR's strength was gradually reduced from about 5,000 to
approximately 2,200 personnel. Security Council resolution 1029
of December 12, 1995 (adopted unanimously) reduced UNAMIR further
to 1,400 personnel and extended the mandate for a final 3-month
period. UNAMIR will terminate on March 8, 1996, and all troops
are scheduled to leave Rwanda by mid-April of 1996.
Pursuant to resolution 1013, adopted unanimously
on September 7, 1995, the Security Council requested the Secretary
General to establish an International Commission of Inquiry to
investigate reports of military training and arms transfers to
the former Rwandan Government forces. The arms embargo against
the Government of Rwanda was lifted on August 16 pursuant to resolution
1011 (adopted unanimously). The Commission began its work in November
1995 and is expected to issue its final report by the end of February
1996.
The International Criminal Tribunal continued
its investigations into the 1994 genocide in Rwanda and issued
its first indictments on December 8, 1995.
The Security Council voted unanimously on November
4, 1994, in resolution 954, to extend the mandate of the UN Operation
in Somalia (UNOSOM II) for a final term through March 31, 1995.
While the international interventions in Somalia had been largely
successful in eradicating widespread famine, there had not been
progress toward reestablishing political order. The deteriorating
security situation and the operation's unacceptable costs in lives
and resources had compelled the termination of UNOSOM II.
The United States agreed to the UN request
for assistance in effecting UNOSOM II's safe departure, and beginning
in January 1995 U.S. military planners worked ashore in Somalia
in preparation for the withdrawal. That final, complex phase of
the operations was accomplished with the support of a combined
task force under the command of U.S. Lt. General Anthony C. Zinni,
which was composed of forces from the United States, France, India,
Italy, Malaysia, Pakistan and the United Kingdom, operating under
the auspices of the United Nations. The joint withdrawal operations
of the "United Shield'' task force and UNOSOM II proceeded
with minimal interruption. By the end of February, all UN forces
were out of Somalia with the exception of a rearguard of 2,500,
which was withdrawn on March 2. The combined task force, which
had landed in Mogadishu on February 28 to cover the UNOSOM II
withdrawal, departed on March 3 without casualty.
Throughout 1995, the United States and the
Security Council were intensively engaged in efforts to resolve
this long-standing dispute over the Western Sahara between the
Government of Morocco and the Polisario. Efforts focused on enhancing
the ability of the UN Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara
(MINURSO) to carry out its mandate, on seeking proposals which
would support progress in the chronically stalled process of identifying
voters for a referendum, and on encouraging the disputants to
take other confidence-building measures.
On January 13 the Council adopted resolution
973, which placed MINURSO under a renewable mandate for the first
time. Resolution 995 of May 26 supported the dispatch of a UN
Security Council mission to the region, which reported on prospects
for the holding of a referendum in the territory by early 1996.
Resolutions 1002 of June 30 and 1017 of September 22 also approved
renewals of the mandate. Unfortunately, by the end of 1995, there
was little significant progress towards resolving those issues
that would set the stage for the holding of a free, fair and impartial
referendum in the territory.
While waiting to express its strong support
for the holding of a referendum, the United States stated repeatedly
that the parties to the dispute had to show their commitment to
the process in order to retain the political and financial support
of the international community. The United States cautioned the
parties that scarce resources could no longer be allocated to
peacekeeping operations that showed questionable progress and
could not be completed within a definite time period. The United
States supported the Council's determination that the mission
could face termination if significant progress was not achieved.
Despite the lack of movement towards completing the identification
process, the two sides, with active U.S. support, were able to
effect the repatriation of 185 Moroccan prisoners of war.
ONUSAL, the highly successful UN Observer Mission
in El Salvador, was established in May 1991 under Security Council
resolution 693 and, over a 4-year period, helped El Salvador end
a 10-year conflict, created and supported democratic institutions
and established a civilian police force. On April 28, 1995, the
Security Council agreed to end ONUSAL, effective April 30. (Resolution
991.) It was replaced with a small follow-on team dubbed MINUSAL
(Mission of the United Nations in El Salvador). MINUSAL remained
to monitor the remaining elements of the peace accords, including
public security, land transfer, human settlements, programs to
reintegrate combatants into civilian life, a Fund for the Protection
of the Wounded and Disabled and legislative reforms. The total
professional staff of MINUSAL numbered about 20 for most of the
6-month mandate running from May 1 through November 30. This included
11 international staff, a small administrative team and 8 civilian
police funded by member states. A principal MINUSAL activity was
technical assistance to the newly established National Civil Police.
On October 31 the Secretary General recommended, and the General
Assembly approved, a 6-month extension of MINUSAL through April
1996, with a gradual reduction in both staffing and costs. (Resolution
50/7.) A substantial portion of this final term, including the
civilian police team, is funded by voluntary contributions. In
November 1995 Dr. Ricardo Vigil of Peru replaced Enrique Ter Horst
of Venezuela as the Secretary General's Special Representative
overseeing MINUSAL.
The UN Human Rights Verification Mission in
Guatemala (MINUGUA) was established by the General Assembly on
September 19, 1994, and began operation in Guatemala on November
21, 1994. MINUGUA is responsible for monitoring verification of
the commitments made by the Government of Guatemala and the Unidad
Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca guerrillas in the March 1994
Accord on Human Rights, as well as of the human rights provisions
in the Accord on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples signed in March
1995. By February 1995 MINUGUA had deployed 211 international
personnel from 36 countries to 7 regional and 5 subregional offices
throughout Guatemala. By year end, MINUGUA had 305 personnel working
in Guatemala, with a headquarters in Guatemala City and 8 regional
and 5 subregional offices to provide coverage throughout Guatemala's
22 departments. The Guatemalan Government, international and domestic
NGOs, and human rights activists all agree that in its first year
of operation MINUGUA has made an important contribution to improving
respect for human rights, strengthening civic and governmental
institutions that deal with human rights, and providing accurate
and unbiased investigation of and reporting on alleged human rights
abuses. By helping to strengthen respect for human rights and
end impunity for human rights abusers, MINUGUA is helping to eliminate
the climate of fear and insecurity which has prevailed in Guatemala
throughout the 35-year-long civil war, and has thus hastened the
end of the conflict.
Pursuant to recommendations by the Multinational
Force (MNF) member states, Force Commander and the Secretary General,
the Security Council determined that a secure and stable environment
was established in Haiti, (Resolution 975), and it authorized
the UN Mission in Haiti (UNMIH) to assume responsibility for the
operation by March 31, 1995.
Since March 31, UNMIH has effectively carried
out its mandate: assisting the legitimate Haitian authorities
in maintaining a secure and stable environment; professionalizing
the military and police; and holding legislative and presidential
elections. Over 5,000 Haitian police were trained by the international
community and deployed under the watchful eyes of international
police monitors. The International Civilian Mission in Haiti,
under a dual mandate from the United Nations and the Organization
of American States (OAS), monitored human rights in Haiti and
contributed importantly to the observation of elections in 1995--legislative
elections were held between June and September and Presidential
elections were held December 17. Haiti's first-ever transition
from one democratically elected President to another will take
place on February 7, 1996.
Resolution 1007 of July 31 extended UNMIH's
mandate through the end of February 1996. Upon his inauguration
in mid-February, President Rene Preval is expected to request
an extension of UNMIH. The substantially reduced extended force
will not include U.S. troops and is expected to be led by Canada.
As of December 31, 1995, UNMIH consisted of 5,609 troops (2,226
from the United States) and 414 civilian police trainers. The
UNMIH Force Commander was U.S. Army Major General Joseph Kinzer,
and the Secretary General's Special Representative was Lakhdar
Brahimi of Algeria.
The UN Special Mission for Afghanistan, established
in 1994 and headed by former Tunisian Foreign Minister Mahmoud
Mestiri, continued its efforts to help Afghans resolve their conflict
by bringing representatives of the warring factions together to
forge a peace process. Fighting persisted through the year, however,
and the Special Mission focused on diplomacy among the factions
to secure agreement on a temporary ceasefire and a transfer of
power to an interim governing council. By year's end, hostilities
had produced a de facto military stalemate. The United States--in
the Security Council, the Friends of Afghanistan group and elsewhere--strongly
supported the work of the Special Mission as well as UN humanitarian
agencies.
In December Mestiri briefed the Security Council
on his peacemaking efforts. In an oral press statement, the Security
Council President underlined the Council's continuing support
for the UN Special Mission; called for a cessation of hostilities,
in particular the bombing of civilian areas of Kabul; called for
a halt to arms shipments to the factions; stressed members' belief
that the conflict could be resolved only through negotiations;
and called for release of a Russian air crew detained in Kandahar.
The General Assembly, in plenary on December
19, adopted a resolution that, inter alia: appealed for international
humanitarian assistance; called on factions not to hinder the
transport and distribution of emergency humanitarian assistance;
supported the UN Special Mission's efforts to facilitate national
reconciliation and reconstruction through urgent establishment
of a fully representative and broad-based authoritative council;
called for a halt of the flow of arms and arms-production related
equipment; urged warring factions to cooperate with the council,
renounce force and settle political differences through peaceful
means; and urged the release of a detained Russian air crew. (Resolution
50/88.)
The United States cosponsored the resolution
and issued a statement that underscored the importance of a transfer
of power to a broad-based interim council, a nationwide ceasefire,
creation of a national security force and formation of an acceptable
transitional government. The statement also reaffirmed the U.S.
commitment to assist the people of Afghanistan and outlined U.S.
contributions to international humanitarian and demining operations
in Afghanistan.
The UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus (UNFICYP)
was created in March 1964, to help end violence between the Greek
Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities. Since the de facto division
of the island in 1974, UNFICYP has also served as a buffer force
between Turkish and Turkish-Cypriot forces on one side and the
Greek Cypriot National Guard and Greek troops on the other side.
There are approximately 1,500 personnel assigned to UNFICYP; no
U.S. personnel participate. On June 23 the UN Security Council
(Resolution 1000) unanimously extended UNFICYP's mandate until
December 31, 1995. On December 19 the mandate was unanimously
extended again (Resolution 1032) until June 30, 1996.
In both resolutions the Security Council expressed
concern that there has been little progress towards either a final
political solution or a significant reduction in the number of
foreign troops on the island. Resolution 1032 also welcomed the
humanitarian review undertaken by UNFICYP regarding the living
conditions of the Greek Cypriots and the Maronites living in the
northern part of the island, as well as UNFICYP's initiatives
in organizing successful bicommunal events.
The Secretary General's Good Office's mission
continued contacts with the leaders of the two communities in
Cyprus, with the Governments of Greece and Turkey and with interested
governments, including the United States, with a view towards
a settlement of the Cyprus problem.
On January 12 the Security Council unanimously
adopted resolution 971 extending the mandate of the UN Observer
Mission in Georgia (UNOMIG) until May 15, 1995. First established
in 1993, UNOMIG was expanded in July 1994 to 136 military observers
and charged with monitoring the implementation of the May 1994
ceasefire agreement between the Government of Georgia and the
Abkhaz separatists and with observing the Russian CIS peacekeeping
force. Four U.S. military observers participate in UNOMIG. By
resolution 993 adopted unanimously on May 12, the Security Council
extended UNOMIG's mandate until January 12, 1996.
The parties continued for the most part to
abide by the ceasefire in 1995. The political talks, under the
auspices of the UN Secretary General's Special Representative
and with the participation of Russia as facilitator, made little
progress toward a comprehensive settlement acceptable to the international
community and consistent with Georgian sovereignty and territorial
integrity.
The UN Mission of Observers in Tajikistan (UNMOT)
was established by Security Council resolution 968 of December
16, 1994, to monitor the November 1994 ceasefire agreement between
the Government of Tajikistan and the United Tajik Opposition.
It was authorized for an initial period of 6 months at a force
level of 40 military observers. The Council stipulated that UNMOT
would continue beyond February 6, 1995, only if the ceasefire
was extended. In the context of the UN-mediated inter-Tajik peace
talks, the two sides extended the ceasefire first until April
26, then until May 26. At the UN-mediated fourth round of inter-Tajik
talks held at Almaty May 22-June 1, the sides agreed to an extension
until August 26.
On June 16 by resolution 999 (adopted unanimously),
the Security Council welcomed the fourth round of inter-Tajik
talks and the extension of the ceasefire and extended the mandate
of UNMOT until December 15 subject to the proviso that the ceasefire
remain in force. In addition, the Council authorized the Secretary
General to pursue discussion with Afghan authorities on the possible
establishment of an UNMOT liaison post in northern Afghanistan,
where the Tajik opposition is headquartered. During indirect talks
in August arranged by the Secretary General's special envoy, the
two sides extended the ceasefire until February 26, 1996.
In response to the Secretary General's recommendations,
the Security Council, in a November 6 statement issued by the
Council's President, agreed with the proposal to establish an
UNMOT liaison post in northern Afghanistan and authorized the
Secretary General to increase UNMOT's military observer strength
to 45. By resolution 1030, unanimously adopted on December 14,
the Security Council extended UNMOT's mandate to June 15, 1996,
again subject to the proviso that the ceasefire remain in effect,
but expressed regret at the slow rate of progress toward a political
solution to the conflict.
The United States was heavily involved in Security
Council actions related to the former Yugoslavia, supporting UN
objectives in Bosnia and Herzegovina and active in organizing
NATO support for UNPROFOR forces. The United States led efforts
which resulted in the Dayton Peace Agreements, the Basic Agreement
for Eastern Slavonia and the deployment of the NATO-led Implementation
Force (IFOR) in December. There was continued concern for the
victims of the conflict and strong support for the International
Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia in its continuing investigation
of war crimes. Security Council resolutions were adopted unanimously
except where noted.
In March the Council extended the mandate of
the UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR) until November 30. (Resolution
982.) At the same time, UNPROFOR elements operating in Croatia
and along the border between the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
and the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia were given separate,
and slightly different, mandates as the UN Confidence Restoration
Operation in Croatia (UNCRO) (Resolution 981) and the UN Preventive
Deployment (UNPREDEP), respectively. (Resolution 983.)
On June 16, after Bosnian Serb forces had taken
a number of UNPROFOR members hostage, the Council, with China
and Russia abstaining, adopted resolution 998, which established
a Rapid Reaction Force for UNPROFOR. In response to the Bosnian
Serbs' increased military actions, NATO forces defending UNPROFOR
bombed Bosnian Serb positions in August, leading to a ceasefire
and, ultimately, to the negotiations in Dayton, Ohio, cochaired
by the United States and the EU. These negotiations resulted in
the Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and the Basic Agreement
on Eastern Slavonia.
In support of the Dayton negotiations, the
Council adopted resolutions 1021 and 1022 on November 22, which
established respectively a framework for a phased lifting of the
arms embargo and conditions for the lifting of economic sanctions
on the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Bosnian Serbs. At
the conclusion of the Dayton negotiations, on November 30, the
Council adopted separate resolutions extending the mandates of
UNCRO and UNPROFOR until early 1996, pending deployment of replacement
forces, and UNPREDEP's mandate until May 30, 1996. (Resolutions
1025, 1026 and 1027.)
On December 15 the Council adopted resolution
1031, which terminated UNPROFOR and authorized the deployment
of IFOR. It also endorsed the establishment of a civilian implementation
program. On December 21 resolution 1035 authorized the creation
of an International Police Task Force to be part of that civilian
implementation program.
During the year, the Council was also concerned
with violations of human rights and humanitarian law in the former
Yugoslavia. In July, resolution 1004 condemned the Bosnian Serb
capture of the protected area of Srebrenica. In response to reports
of massacres in Srebrenica and Zepa, resolution 1010 called on
the Bosnian Serbs to allow access for international humanitarian
organizations. In November, resolution 1019 noted continued reports
of violations of humanitarian law in Serbia and Croatia and called
on both parties to cooperate with the International Criminal Tribunal
for Yugoslavia and other humanitarian organizations.
The Council also took steps to address the
conflict in Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium (known
collectively as Eastern Slavonia). It is an area in Croatia occupied
by Serbian forces during the early stages of the war, which the
United Nations called "Sector East.'' The Serb and Croat
parties agreed on November 12, 1995, to the phased reinstitution
of Croatian Government control and called on the Security Council
to establish a peacekeeping operation, with both civilian and
military elements, to oversee the transfer of control to Croatia
and to assist with related activities.
The open-ended working group on Security Council
expansion and reform, established by resolution 48/26 of 1993,
met periodically throughout 1995, agreeing to continue its work
in 1996. In a September report, the working group noted that discussions
showed
. . . there was agreement to expand the Security
Council and to review its working methods and other matters related
to its functioning in a way that further strengthens its capacity
and effectiveness, enhances its representative character and improves
its working efficiency. . .
while acknowledging that considerable differences
remained on key aspects of expansion.
During the UN general debate, the UN's 50th
anniversary special session and the November 13-15 Assembly plenary
debate on UN Security Council expansion, speakers generally endorsed
Security Council enlargement, but differed widely in emphasis
and particulars. In his General Assembly speech, Secretary of
State Warren M. Christopher said,
We must maintain the effectiveness of the Security
Council. Germany and Japan should become permanent members. We
should ensure that all the world's regions are fairly represented,
without making the Council unwieldy.
In general, states disagreed on the size and
composition of an expanded Council, though the low-to-mid 20's
and a balance between additional permanent and nonpermanent seats
were common reference points. Many states called for the elimination
of or restrictions on the use of the veto. Many members favored
a more equitable geographic distribution of seats, particularly
for developing countries, and some suggested eliminating the Charter
clause prohibiting successive terms on the Council. As in 1994,
there was widespread sentiment for increased transparency and
openness, particularly concerning improved communications and
briefings between the Council and Assembly.
The year 1995 was marked both by a sharp decline
in the number of UN peacekeepers in the field (down from about
69,000 on January 1 to about 31,000 on December 31) and by an
increase in the level of discipline being applied to the entire
peacekeeping decision-making process. Both U.S. and Security Council
decision-making on the new peacekeeping operation in Angola, for
example, clearly were influenced by the considerations detailed
in the policy statement of the Administration issued in 1994 on
"reforming multilateral peace operations.'' The Administration's
goal was to reform UN peacekeeping by insisting that questions
of cost, size, risk, mandate and duration be answered before operations
are started, extended or expanded. This new U.S. approach to peacekeeping--and
the Security Council's adoption of similar guidelines--had great
impact on the 1995 Security Council resolution that authorized
UNAVEM II in Angola, the year's only major new operation outside
of the Balkans. The resolution tied the deployment of the infantry
elements of the force to implementation by the Angolan parties
of specific steps outlined in their peace agreement, serving both
to keep pressure on the parties to comply with the agreement and
to ensure that UN troops did not deploy prematurely, wasting scarce
peacekeeping resources or putting the force into unnecessary danger.
Similarly, this prudent approach also brought a greater degree
of discipline to bear on decisions regarding the conduct of other
peace operations.
Better choices about peacekeeping arrangements
and the decline in the number of peacekeepers in the field have
also reduced costs. Total UN peacekeeping expenses peaked between
1994 and 1995; at the end of 1995 the annual total was just over
$3.5 billion. We expect total UN peacekeeping costs in 1996 to
be about $1.8 billion. This reduction in costs, however, comes
at a time of general financial crisis at the United Nations, resulting
from the failure of members--including the United States--to pay
assessments in full or on time. At the end of 1995 the shortfall
in member payments was almost $2.3 billion.
During 1995 the United States continued to
work with the United Nations to address another serious threat
to international peace and security--the global antipersonnel
landmine problem. On March 24 the United States ratified the UN
Convention on Conventional Weapons, which contains use restrictions
on antipersonnel landmines. For the third year in a row, the United
States introduced a consensus resolution (with 111 cosponsors)
calling on states to adopt export moratoria on antipersonnel landmines.
To date, 28 countries, including the United States, have adopted
such moratoria. During 1995 the United States continued to channel
financial and technical assistance to a number of landmine-affected
countries through UN agencies. The United Nations also agreed
to a U.S. suggestion for a major international meeting on demining
to help coordinate efforts and increase global awareness of the
issue. Held in July 1995 in Geneva, the UN meeting brought together
representatives of those nations with landmine problems and of
nations that actively seek to help find the solutions. To better
coordinate the international demining effort, the meeting's participants
cataloged their work around the world, and many pledged additional
financial and material support for demining.
The Special Committee on the Charter of the
United Nations and on the Strengthening of the Role of the Organization
(Charter Committee) held its 20th annual session in March 1995.
A resolution adopting the report of the committee's work, as well
as resolutions on "UN Model Rules for the Conciliation of
Disputes Between States'' and "Implementation of Charter
Provisions Related to Assistance to Third States Affected by the
Application of Sanctions,'' were debated and adopted during the
UN General Assembly Sixth Committee meetings in the fall. The
resolutions were subsequently adopted by the General Assembly
on December 11. (Resolutions 50/52, 50/50 and 50/51.)
The Charter Committee decided at its March
meeting to recommend that members amend the Charter by deleting
provisions referring to "enemy states.'' No specific date
for such action was determined. During debate in the Sixth Committee,
the Democratic People's Republic of Korea objected to the deletions
as they pertain to Japan until such time as Japan apologizes for
its World War II actions. Resolution 50/52 on the report of the
work of the Charter Committee was subsequently adopted by the
General Assembly by a vote of 155 (U.S.) to 0, with 3 abstentions.
The United Nations celebrated its 50th anniversary,
with the theme, "We the Peoples of the United Nations . .
. United for a Better World,'' through media displays, seminars,
symposia, the issuance of commemorative stamps and coins and numerous
activities for youth, including primary school seminars and the
convening of a youth plenary. Financing for anniversary events
was through a voluntary trust fund which received substantial
individual and corporate support.
The United Nations convened a General Assembly
Summit on October 22-24, attended by over 150 heads of state/government
of member countries in the largest ever gathering of world leaders.
President William Clinton made the keynote address, underscoring
U.S. support for a reengineered, cost-effective United Nations.
The President challenged member states to support UN reform and
urged greater international cooperation in meeting transnational
threats to peace, stability and citizens' security. Other world
leaders addressed, though with widely differing emphases, UN reform,
UN Security Council expansion, peacekeeping, development, human
rights and the failure of member states to pay their UN dues.
Also in October, UN member states issued a
UN50 Declaration, rededicating themselves to the principles and
values of the UN Charter and outlining current and future roles,
activities and programs for the organization. In September, the
Security Council held a commemorative ministerial session, reaffirming
the central role of the Council in international peace and security
issues.
As mandated by the General Assembly, the UN
Disarmament Commission (UNDC) provides a subsidiary forum for
deliberation on disarmament issues when the Assembly is not in
session. The UNDC, operating by consensus, considers and makes
recommendations on various problems in the field of disarmament,
and follows up the relevant decisions and recommendations of the
special sessions devoted to disarmament. The 1995 UNDC deliberated
May 15-May 30, and formed working groups to consider three agenda
items: "The process of nuclear disarmament in the framework
of international peace and security, with the objective of the
elimination of nuclear weapons'' (Working Group I); "International
arms transfers, with particular reference to General Assembly
resolution 46/36 H of 6 December 1991" (Working Group II);
and "Review of the Declaration of the 1990's as the Third
Disarmament Decade'' (Working Group III). Action was completed
on two of the agenda items (Nuclear disarmament and Third Disarmament
Decade) but, despite several years of discussion, consensus could
not be reached on substantive report language. India, Iran and
a handful of other Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) states rejected
language referring to major disarmament achievements such as the
substantial progress made by the United States and the Russian
Federation in reducing their nuclear arsenals, and the results
of the recently concluded Nonproliferation Treaty Review and Extension
Conference. Conversely, these states sought to incorporate report
language which they knew could not achieve consensus. As a result,
the working group chairmen issued only brief procedural reports
on these two topics.
Discussion continued at the 1995 UNDC on International
Arms Transfers, but there was no consensus on the scope of the
International Arms Transfer issue. Non-aligned countries attempted
to focus discussion on the problem of illicit arms trafficking,
while the United States sought to focus on the broader scope of
this issue. In the end, Working Group II produced a draft report
containing heavily bracketed text for consideration by the 1996
UNDC.
The Conference on Disarmament (CD), located
in Geneva, Switzerland, is the single global multilateral disarmament
and arms control negotiating forum of the international community.
Thirty-eight countries are members, including all five nuclear-weapon
states. In 1995, 51 other states participated as observers, 35
of which have applied for full CD membership. The CD operates
by consensus and its membership is divided into three regional
groups--the Western Group, composed of the United States and its
allies, plus Argentina and Sweden; the Eastern Group, composed
largely of former Warsaw Pact countries; the G-21, composed of
Non-Aligned Movement countries; and one independent member, China.
The CD is an autonomous organization, but it receives financial
support from the United Nations. It makes an annual report to
the General Assembly, whose resolutions often urge the CD to consider
specific disarmament matters. The Conference on Disarmament met
three times during 1995: January 30-April 7; May 29-July 7; and
July 31-September 22. The mood and atmospherics of the 1995 CD
session were greatly influenced by the run-up to the April NPT
Renewal and Extension Conference in New York, and the displeasure
of some at its outcome.
In both regular and intersessional meetings,
the CD's Nuclear Test Ban Ad Hoc Committee made significant progress
during 1995 toward completion of the Comprehensive Test-Ban Treaty
(CTBT), one of the Administration's highest arms control priorities.
A CTBT will constrain the further development of nuclear weapons
and support both non-proliferation and nuclear disarmament objectives.
Early in 1995, the United States withdrew its proposal for the
right to leave the Treaty after 10 years for reasons other than
supreme national interests. A breakthrough toward reaching agreement
on the CTBT's scope occurred on August 11 when President Clinton
announced the U.S. decision to seek a "zero yield'' CTBT
that would ban any nuclear weapon test explosion or any other
nuclear explosion. CTBT discussions took place against the backdrop
of underground nuclear tests conducted by China and France. These
tests were criticized by a number of states at the CD, and the
United States expressed its regret at the testing. (The United
States and the Russian Federation have observed testing moratoria
since September 1992 and October 1990, respectively.) The CTBT
working group on legal and institutional issues continued its
steady progress to define the organization that will implement
the treaty, and to develop a range of other treaty provisions.
The verification working group made significant progress in developing
a global monitoring system using several technologies (seismic,
radionucleide, noble gas and hydroacoustic) to detect surreptitious
nuclear tests, and in developing procedures for on-site inspections.
In other developments in Geneva, the CD on
March 23 established an ad hoc committee to negotiate a multilateral,
internationally and effectively verifiable ban on the production
of fissile material for use in nuclear weapons or other nuclear
explosive devices. Regrettably, opposition from NAM (G-21) states
prevented the appointment of a committee chairman or any committee
meetings. Similarly, three ad hoc committees that had been established
in 1994 (Transparency in Armaments, Negative Security Assurances,
and Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space) were not reestablished
in 1995 due to an impasse on the CD's agenda caused by the G-21's
refusal to permit reestablishment of the Transparency in Armaments
Ad Hoc Committee. Gridlock ensued when the G-21 linked the CD's
agenda to their demand for a new Ad Hoc Committee on Nuclear Disarmament.
The impasse on expanding the CD's membership moved closer to resolution
in 1995 when 23 observer states were admitted in principle on
September 21, with the effective date of membership to be determined
by consensus at a later date. The United States then tabled a
working paper calling for the 23 candidates to assume full membership
immediately, with the proviso that no CD member subject to UN
Security Council comprehensive enforcement measures imposed under
Chapter VII of the UN Charter (Iraq) would have the right to deny
consensus on any decision adopted by the CD. The Conference took
no action on the U.S. proposal.
The 1995 General Assembly First Committee convened
on October 17 and considered disarmament and international security
items through November 21. The Committee considered a total of
51 decisions and resolutions, nearly half of which were adopted
by consensus. The United States voted yes or joined consensus
on 31 resolutions, abstained on 6 and voted no on 11. On December
12 the General Assembly considered and adopted all the resolutions
referred to it by the First Committee.
The United States was the primary sponsor of
three resolutions (landmine export moratorium, compliance with
arms limitation and disarmament agreements, and U.S.-Russian bilateral
nuclear negotiations), all of which were adopted. The resolution
on antipersonnel landmines was adopted by consensus and attracted
broad support, as evidenced by its 111 cosponsors. The compliance
resolution was likewise adopted by consensus.
Another notable achievement was consensus adoption
of a resolution urging completion of the Comprehensive Test-Ban
Treaty as soon as possible in 1996. The United Nations also welcomed
the completion of the African Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone. The most
emotional issue of this session was a nuclear testing resolution
which criticized, though not by name, those countries still conducting
nuclear tests. The United States abstained because the wording
went beyond what the United States could support in tone and content.
The 50th UN General Assembly considered one
resolution related to the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer
Space (COPUOS) in 1995. Resolution 50/27, "International
cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space,'' was adopted
without a vote by the General Assembly. The resolution renewed
the mandate of the COPUOS and set the program of work for it and
its Legal and Scientific and Technical Subcommittees. COPUOS and
the subcommittees continued their work on questions relating to
international cooperation in areas such as meteorology, astronomy
and astrophysics, space transportation, human space flight, planetary
exploration and environmental monitoring.
The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea was
concluded on December 10, 1982, and signed by 159 nations. The
United States did not sign the convention because of its objections
to provisions dealing with seabed mining (Part XI). On July 28,
1994, the Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI
of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea of December 10, 1982,
was adopted in New York and has been signed by 79 nations, including
the United States. The Agreement incorporates legally binding
changes in the deep seabed mining provisions of the convention
that satisfactorily address the objections of the United States
and other industrialized countries.
In October 1994 the President transmitted the
convention for the advice and consent of the Senate to accession
and the agreement for the advice and consent of the Senate to
ratification. Taken together, the convention and the agreement
meet a basic and long-standing objective of U.S. oceans policy:
conclusion of a comprehensive treaty on the law of the sea that
will be respected by all nations. Action by the Senate was still
pending at the end of 1995.
The convention entered into force on November
16, 1994, one year after the 60th nation had become a party to
it. The Agreement will enter into force after 40 nations, including
at least 7 nations that have made substantial investments in seabed
mining activities, have become parties to it. As of January 16,
1994, 43 nations have become parties to it, including 3 nations
that have made substantial investments in seabed mining activities.
The Agreement provides for its provisional application consistent
with domestic law pending its entry into force and 125 nations
have agreed to provisionally apply the agreement, including Russia
and virtually all OECD countries.
Three institutions will be formed under the
convention. The first is the International Seabed Authority, with
its seat in Kingston, Jamaica. The assembly of the Authority met
three times in 1994 and 1995 to address organizational matters,
but was not able to complete the formation of the governing council
for the Authority. Consultations on elections to the council continued
during December, looking toward final action on setting up the
council at the next meeting of the Assembly early in 1996. The
second is the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, to
be located in Hamburg, Germany, and to open for business on October
1, 1996. The organizational arrangements for the Tribunal were
considered and agreed upon at the first and second meetings of
states parties to the convention in November 1994 and May 1995.
The third institution to be established is the Commission on the
Limits of the Continental Shelf.
The Trusteeship Council did not meet in 1995,
pursuant to an amendment made in its rules of procedure in 1994
stating that it will meet only at the request of a Council member
nation, rather than annually. No such request was made last year.
Chapter XI of the UN Charter sets forth responsibilities
of states for the "administration of territories whose peoples
have not yet attained a full measure of self-government.'' These
"non-self-governing territories'' are considered annually
by the Special Committee on the Situation with Regard to the Implementation
of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial
Countries and Peoples (Committee of 24, or C-24) and by the Special
Political and Decolonization Committee (Fourth Committee). The
C-24 makes suggestions and recommendations to the Fourth Committee
regarding implementation of UN General Assembly resolution 1514
of 1960 (Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial
Countries and Peoples), specific issues affecting the decolonization
process, and the activities of specialized agencies and other
UN bodies in those territories.
The United States believes that the mandate
of the C-24 largely has been completed and that this Committee
should no longer continue to devote time and resources to discussing
the so-called "non-self-governing territories'' whose peoples
have already expressed their views on their desired political
status. This would include all of those territories where the
United States is the administering power: Guam, American Samoa
and the U.S. Virgin Islands. In 1995, in statements in the General
Assembly and Fourth Committee, the United States stated its belief
that the C-24 should recognize the results of "free and fair
elections conducted by the governments of the territory'' in considering
the status of territories.
In the Special Political and Decolonization
Committee, the United States worked with others to amend the "omnibus''
resolution which addresses 12 non-self-governing territories.
The United States pressed for a total of 40 amendments to this
resolution, aimed at correcting factual errors and encouraging
the C-24 to consider the situations in certain territories in
a new and more practical light. The key amendments were defeated
narrowly in Fourth Committee voting.
The 50th UN General Assembly plenary voted
on the two decolonization items considered without reference to
the Fourth Committee. The United States voted no on both of these
resolutions. Resolution 50/40 on dissemination of information
on decolonization was adopted 133 to 3 (U.S.), with 25 abstentions.
Resolution 50/39 on the Implementation of the Declaration on the
Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples was
adopted 130 to 4 (U.S.), with 26 abstentions. The United States
opposed these resolutions because both perpetuate an outmoded
approach to decolonization.
[end of document]
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