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Afghanistan

7. State-Owned Enterprises

The Government of Afghanistan operates over 30 active state-owned enterprises (SOEs), almost all of which are wholly-owned.  About 11,000 people are employed in sectors including public security, construction, transport, telecommunications, agriculture, and extractives.  Net income for all the SOEs is around USD 13 million; few are profitable. All SOEs are overseen and regulated by the Ministry of Finance and directly operated by specific ministries depending on the nature of the operations.  The Law on State Owned Enterprises includes specific targets for research and development investment, social development measures, and employee profit sharing, but compliance is negligible.

The Afghan government is also a stakeholder in 13 state-owned corporations (SOCs), entities that have independent boards and are not operated or directly supervised by the government.  SOEs and SOCs make up a small share of overall economic activity, although a few SOCs have significant market share in their sectors, including Afghan Telecom (Aftel), Ariana Afghan Airlines, and the electrical utility DABS (Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat).

Afghanistan does not have a centralized ownership entity for SOEs; the Ministry of Finance is responsible for all SOE oversight.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 1: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $20.82 B 2017 $19,540 https://data.worldbank.org/country/afghanistan   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 N/A 2017 $19 https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/south-central-asia/afghanistan   
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $0 2017 $2 https://ustr.gov/countries-regions/south-central-asia/afghanistan    
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 7.0% unctad.org/sections/dite_dir/docs/wir2018/wir18_fs_af_en.pdf  


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Data not available.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Albania

7. State-Owned Enterprises

State-owned enterprises (SOEs) are defined as legal entities, which are entirely state-owned or state-controlled and operate as commercial companies in compliance with the Law on Entrepreneurs and Commercial Companies.  SOEs operate mostly in the generation, distribution, and transmission of electricity, oil and gas, railways, postal services, ports, and water supply. There is no published list of SOEs.

No discrimination exists between public and private companies operating in the same sector.  The government requires SOEs to submit annual reports and undergo independent audits. SOEs are subject to the same tax levels and procedures, and same domestic accounting and international financial reporting standards, as other commercial companies.  The High State Audit is the institution that audits SOE activities. SOEs are also subject to public procurement law.

Albania is yet to become party to the Government Procurement Agreement (GPA) of the World Trade Organization (WTO), but has obtained observer status and is negotiating full accession.  However, private companies can compete openly and under the same terms and conditions with respect to market share, products and services, and incentives.

The SOE operation in Albania is regulated by the Law on Entrepreneurs and Commercial Companies, the Law on State Owned Enterprises, and the Law on the Transformation of State-Owned Enterprises into Commercial Companies.  The Ministry of Economy and Finance and other relevant ministries covering the sector in which the company operates represent the state as the owner of the SOEs. There are no legal binding requirements for the SOEs to adhere to Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) guidelines.  However, basic principles of corporate governance are stipulated in the above-mentioned laws and generally accord with OECD guidelines. The corporate governance structure of SOEs includes the supervisory board and the general director (administrator) in the case of joint stock companies. The supervisory board is comprised of 3-9 members, who are not employed by the SOE, two-thirds of whom are appointed by the representative of the Ministry of Economy and Finance, and one-third by the line ministry, local government unit, or institution to which the company reports.  The Supervisory Board is the highest decision making authority and appoints and dismisses the administrator for the SOE through a two-thirds vote.

Privatization Program

The privatization process in Albania is nearing conclusion, with just a few major privatizations remaining.  Such opportunities include OSHEE, the state-run electricity distributor; 16 percent of Albtelekom, the fixed- line telephone company; and state-owned oil company Albpetrol.

The bidding process for privatizations is public and relevant information is published by the Public Procurement Agency at www.app.gov.al  .  Foreign investors may participate in the privatization program.  No public timelines exist for future privatizations.

The privatization process in Albania is nearing conclusion, with just a few major privatizations remaining.  Such opportunities include OSHEE, the state-run electricity distributor; 16 percent of Albtelekom, the fixed- line telephone company; and state-owned oil company Albpetrol.

The bidding process for privatizations is public and relevant information is published by the Public Procurement Agency at www.app.gov.al  .  Foreign investors may participate in the privatization program.  No public timelines exist for future privatizations.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $13,039 2017 $13,039 www.worldbank.org/en/country  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $89 2017 $56 BEA
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 N/A 2017 $0 BEA
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 55.4% 2017 55.4% UNCTAD

* Source for Host Country Data: Bank of Albania (http://www.bankofalbania.org/  ), Albanian Institute of Statistics (http://www.instat.gov.al/  ), Albanian Ministry of Finances (http://www.financa.gov.al/  )

 

Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment from/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $6,739 100% Total Outward $471 100%
Greece $1,279 19% Kosovo $314 66.6%
Switzerland $1,066 15.8% Italy $137 29%
Canada $1,051 15.5% U.S.A. $9 1.9%
Netherlands $944 14% Netherlands $2 0.4%
Turkey $508 7.5% Germany $2 0.4%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

 

Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries $814 100% All Countries $38 100% All Countries $776 100%
Turkey $258 32% Turkey $17 46% Turkey $241 44.4%
Czech Rep. $101 12% Netherlands $8 22% Czech rep. $101 14.76%
Italy $89 11% Canada $8 22% Italy $89 12.53%
Germany $67 8% Bahamas $2 5% Germany $67 9%
Poland $37 5% U.S.A. $2 5% Poland $37 2.78%

Algeria

7. State-Owned Enterprises

More than half of the formal Algerian economy is comprised of state-owned enterprises (SOEs), led by the national oil and gas company Sonatrach, although SOEs are present in all sectors of the economy.  SOEs are so prevalent that a comprehensive public list does not exist; rather all SOEs are amalgamated into a single line of the state budget. SOEs are listed in the official business registry. To be defined as an SOE, a company must be at least 51 percent owned by the state.

Algerian SOEs are generally heavily bureaucratic and may be subject to political influence.  There are competing lines of authority at the mid-levels, and contacts report mid- and upper-level managers are reluctant to make decisions because internal accusations of favoritism or corruption are often used to settle political scores.  Senior management teams at SOEs report to their relevant ministries; CEOs of the larger companies such as Sonatrach, electric and gas utility Sonelgaz, and airline Air Algerie report directly to ministers. Boards of directors are appointed by the state, and the allocation of these seats is considered political.  SOEs are not known to adhere to the OECD Guidelines on Corporate Governance.

Legally, public and private companies compete under the same terms with respect to market share, products and services, and incentives.  In reality, private enterprises assert that public companies sometimes receive more favorable treatment. Private enterprises have the same access to financing as SOEs, but they tend to work more with private banks and they are far less bureaucratic than are their public counterparts.  Public companies generally refrain from doing business with private banks. In 2008, a government directive ordered public companies to work only with public banks. The directive was later officially rescinded, but the effect has held as a self-imposed practice by public companies. SOEs are subject to the same tax burden and tax rebate policies as their private sector competitors, but business contacts report that the government favors SOEs over private sector companies in terms of access to land.

SOEs are subject to budget constraints.  Audits of public companies are conducted by the Court of Auditors, a financially autonomous institution.  A Constitutional revision of Article 192 in March 2016 enshrined the independence of the Court. The constitution explicitly charges it with “ex post inspection of the finances of the state, collectivities, public services, and commercial capital of the state,” as well as preparing and submitting an annual report to the President, heads of both chambers of Parliament, and Prime Minister.  The previous constitution of 1996 had not included the state’s commercial capital in the Court’s mandate, nor had it required its annual report be shared with anyone but the President. Now, the Court makes its audits public on its website, for free.

The Court conducts audits simultaneously but independently from the Ministry of Finance’s year-end reports.  The Court makes its reports available online once they are finalized and delivered to the Parliament, whereas the Ministry withholds publishing year-end reports until after the Parliament and President have approved them.  The Court’s audit reports cover the entire implemented national budget by fiscal year and examine each annual planning budget that is passed by Parliament.

The General Inspectorate of Finance (IGF), the public auditing body under the supervision of the Ministry of Finance, can conduct “no-notice” audits of public companies.  The results of these audits are sent directly to the Minister of Finance, and the offices of the President and Prime Minister. They are not made available publicly. The Court of Auditors and IFG previously had joint responsibility for auditing certain accounts, but they are in the process of eliminating this redundancy.

Privatization Program

There has been very limited privatization of certain projects previously managed by SOEs in the water sector and likely other sectors.  However, the privatization of SOEs remains a highly sensitive issue and has been halted.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $132,000 2018 $151,000 https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/algeria/publication/economic-update-april-2019  

Algeria Office of National Statistics: http://www.ons.dz/Au-deuxieme-trimestre-2018-les.html  

Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) n/a n/a 2017 $3,000 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) n/a n/a n/a n/a BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2018 0.6% 2017 0.6% UNCTAD data available at  https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

* Algeria Office of National Statistics: http://www.ons.dz/Au-deuxieme-trimestre-2018-les.html  

* National Agency for Investment Development.


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

No information for Algeria is available on the IMF’s Coordinated Direct Investment Survey (CDIS) website.  Neither World Bank nor Algerian sources break down FDI to and from Algeria by individual countries.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

No information for Algeria is available on the IMF’s Coordinated Direct Investment Survey (CDIS) website.  Neither World Bank nor Algerian sources break down FDI to and from Algeria by individual countries.

Andorra

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Andorra has 35 state-owned enterprises (SOEs) associated with health, social services, and energy and telecommunication, which are generally allowed to compete with private enterprises without restriction.  The only exception is the government-owned Andorra Telecom, which has enjoyed a monopoly on the telecommunications industry since 2015.

The Andorran public sector is made up of the central Administration and seven local administrations, one for each of the country’s seven parishes.  The public sector employs 11.6 percent of Andorra’s workforce, or approximately 4,377 employees.

Privatization Program

Andorra has no current plans to privatize any of its SOEs.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Data not available.

Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Data not available.

Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Due to foreign investment limitations up until 2012, FDI statistics are too negligible to be available through the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis.  However, ACTUA publishes foreign direct investment information at: http://www.actua.ad/en/foreign-direct-investment-data-andorra    

Angola

7. State-Owned Enterprises

In Angola, certain state-owned enterprises (SOEs) exercise delegated governmental powers, especially in the mining sector where the government is the sole concessionaire.  Foreign investors may sometimes find demands made by SOEs excessive, and under such conditions, SOEs have easier access to credit and government contracts. There is no law mandating preferential treatment to SOEs, but in practice they have access to inside information and credit.  Currently, SOEs are not subject to budgetary constraints and quite often exceed their capital limits.

SOEs, often benefitting from a government mandate, operate mostly in the extractive, transportation, commerce, banking, and construction sectors.  All SOEs in Angola are required to have boards of directors, and most board members are affiliated with the government. SOEs are not explicitly required to consult with government officials before making decisions.  By law, SOEs must publish annual financial reports for the previous year in the national daily newspaper Jornal de Angola by April 1.  Such reports are not always subject to publically released external audits (though the audit of state oil firm Sonangol is publically released).  The standards used are often questioned. Not all SOEs fulfill their legal obligations, and few are sanctioned.

Angola’s supreme audit institution, Tribunal de Contas, is responsible for auditing SOEs.  However, the Tribunal de Contas does not make its reports publicly available. Angola’s fiscal transparency would be improved by ensuring its supreme audit institution audits SOEs, as well as the government’s annual financial accounts, and makes public its findings within a reasonable period.  Publicly available audit reports would also improve the transparency of contracts between private companies and SOEs.

In November 2016, the Angolan Government revised Law 1/14 “Regime Juridico de Emissão e Gestão da Divida Publica Directa e Indirecta,” which now differentiates between ‘direct’ and ‘indirect’ public debt.  The GRA considers SOE debt as indirect public debt, and only accounts in its state budget for direct government debt, thus effectively not reflecting some substantial obligations in fact owed by the government.  President Lourenço has launched various reforms to improve financial sector transparency, enhance efficiency in the country’s SOEs as part of the National Development plan 2018-2022 and Macroeconomic Stability Plan.  The strategy included the prospective privatization of 74 SOEs that are deemed not profitable to the state. The privatization will possibly include the restructuring of the national air carrier TAAG, Sonangol, and its subsidiaries.  The latter intends to sell off its non- core businesses as part of its restructuring strategy to make the parastatal more efficient.

Angola is not a party to the WTO’s Government Procurement Agreement (GPA).  Angola does not adhere to the OECD guidelines on corporate governance for SOEs.

Privatization Program

The government has a plan to privatize 74 of 90 public companies by 2022 through the Angola Debt and Securities Exchange market (BODIVA) and under the supervision of the Institute of Management of Assets and State Participations (IGAPE).  The privatization plan is in line with the provisions of the Government’s Interim Macroeconomic Stabilization Program (PEM), which aims to rid the government of unprofitable public institutions. The terms of reference for the privatization program are not yet public, except for seven factories located in the Special Economic Zone (ZEE).  The seven industrial units with full terms of reference are:

UNIVITRO – glassworks industry; JUNTEX – plaster industry; CARTON – carton and packaging industry; ABSOR – absorbent products industry; INDUGIDET – sanitation and detergents industry; COBERLEN – blankets and linens industry; and, SACIANGO – cement bags industry.

The government plans to privatize part of state-owned Angola Telecommunications Company, companies in the oil and energy sector, as well as several textile industries.  The government has stated that the privatization process will be open to interested foreign investors and has guaranteed a transparent bidding process. Proposals from investors for seven industrial units at the ZEE will be given special attention to those who decide to retain local workers in these units. The government created a privatization commission on February 27, 2018 and a website https://igape.minfin.gov.ao/PortalIGAPE/#!/sala-de-imprensa/noticias/5413/anuncio-de-concurso-tender-announcement   for submission of tenders.  Full tender documents can be obtained by visiting the below link:
http://www.ucm.minfin.gov.ao/cs/groups/public/documents/document/zmlu/mdu4/~edisp/minfin058842.zip 

Alternatively, contact igape@minfin.gov.ao.  The tenders are open to local and foreign investors.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 N/A 2017 $102,300 www.worldbank.org/en/country  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $780 2016 $747 BEA data available at http://www.bea.gov/international/direct/investment-and-multinational-enterprises%20-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $226 2016 $234 BEA data available at http://www.bea.gov/international/direct/investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data   
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 9.9% 2016 9.0% UNCTAD data available at https://www.unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE    


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
China $2,240 China $18,500
Portugal $2,020 India $3,770
Brazil  $669 United States $2,410
South Africa $637 South Africa $1,340
Congo $523 Spain $964
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Antigua and Barbuda

7. State-Owned Enterprises

State-owned enterprises (SOEs) in Antigua and Barbuda are governed by their respective legislation and do not generally pose a threat to investors, as they are not designed for competition.  The government established many SOEs to create economic activity in areas where the private sector is perceived to have very little interest. A list of SOEs can be found at: http://ab.gov.ag/detail_page.php?page=1 .

SOEs are headed by boards of directors to which senior managers report.  In 2016, the Parliament passed the Statutory Corporations (General Provisions) Act, which specifies the ministerial responsibilities in the appointment and termination of board members, decisions of the board, and employment in these SOEs.  In order to promote diversity and independence on SOE boards, professional associations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and civil society may nominate directors for boards.

Privatization Program

Antigua and Barbuda does not currently have a targeted privatization program.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Antigua and Barbuda

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 $1,300 2017 $1,510 https://data.worldbank.org/country/antigua-and-barbuda?view=chart    
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $7 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $3 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 49.7% UNCTAD data available at

https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx    

* Source for Host Country Data: Eastern Caribbean Central Bank https://www.eccb-centralbank.org/statistics/dashboard-datas/   . All ECCB GDP figures for 2018 are estimates.

Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Data not available. Antigua and Barbuda does not appear in the IMF’s Coordinated Direct Investment Survey (CDIS).


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available. Antigua and Barbuda does not appear the IMF Coordinated Portfolio Investment Survey (CPIS).

Argentina

7. State-Owned Enterprises

The Argentine government has state-owned enterprises (SOEs) or significant stakes in mixed-capital companies in the following sectors: civil commercial aviation, water and sanitation, oil and gas, electricity generation, transport, paper production, satellite, banking, railway, shipyard, and aircraft ground handling services.

By Argentine law, a company is considered a public enterprise if the state owns 100 percent of the company’s shares. The state has majority control over a company if the state owns 51 percent of the company’s shares. The state has minority participation in a company if the state owns less than 51 percent of the company’s shares. Laws regulating state-owned enterprises and enterprises with state participation can be found at http://www.saij.gob.ar/13653-nacional-regimen-empresas-estado-lns0001871-1955-03-23/123456789-0abc-defg-g17-81000scanyel .

Through the government’s social security agency (ANSES), the Argentine government owns stakes ranging from one to 31 percent in 46 publically-listed companies. U.S. investors also own shares in some of these companies. As part of the ANSES takeover of Argentina’s private pension system in 2008, the government agreed to commit itself to being a passive investor in the companies and limit the exercise of its voting rights to 5 percent, regardless of the equity stake the social security agency owned. A list of such enterprises can be found at: http://fgs.anses.gob.ar/participacion .

State-owned enterprises purchase and supply goods and services from the private sector and foreign firms. Private enterprises may compete with SOEs under the same terms and conditions with respect to market share, products/services, and incentives. Private enterprises also have access to financing terms and conditions similar to SOEs. SOEs are subject to the same tax burden and tax rebate policies as their private sector competitors. SOEs are not currently subject to firm budget constraints under the law, and have been subsidized by the central government in the past; however, the Macri administration is reducing subsidies in the energy, water, and transportation sectors. Argentina does not have regulations that differentiate treatment of SOEs and private enterprises. Argentina has observer status under the WTO Agreement on Government Procurement and, as such, SOEs are subject to the conditions of Argentina’s observance.

Argentina does not have a specified ownership policy, guideline or governance code for how the government exercises ownership of SOEs. The country generally adheres to the OECD Guidelines on Corporate Governance of SOEs. The practices for SOEs are mainly in compliance with the policies and practices for transparency and accountability in the OECD Guidelines.

Argentina does not have a centralized ownership entity that exercises ownership rights for each of the SOEs. The general rule in Argentina is that requirements that apply to all listed companies also apply to publicly-listed SOEs.

In 2018, the OECD released a report evaluating the corporate governance framework for the Argentine SOE sector relative to the OECD Guidelines on Corporate Governance of SOEs, which can be viewed here: http://www.oecd.org/countries/argentina/oecd-review-corporate-governance-soe-argentina.htm .

Privatization Program

The current administration has not developed a privatization program.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 $451,443 2017 $637,430 www.worldbank.org/en/country  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 N/A 2017 $14,907 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  

www.bcra.gov.ar

Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 N/A 2017 $1,020 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 N/A 2017 12.2% UNCTAD data available at

https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

* https://www.indec.gob.ar/uploads/informesdeprensa/pib_03_19.pdf ;  www.bcra.gov.ar 


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment from/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $80,373 100% Total Outward N/A 100%
United States $17,713 22% N/A N/A
Spain $13,874 17% N/A N/A
Netherlands $9,300 12% N/A N/A
Brazil $4,983 6% N/A N/A
Chile $4,650 6% N/A N/A
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

No information from the IMF’s Coordinated Portfolio Investment Survey (CPIS) for Outward Direct Investment is available for Argentina.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Armenia

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Most of Armenia’s state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were privatized in the 1990s and early 2000s, yet SOEs are still active in a number of sectors.  SOEs in Armenia operate as state-owned closed joint stock companies that are managed by the Department of State Property and state non-commercial organizations.  There are no laws or rules that ensure a primary or leading role for SOEs in any specific industry. Armenia is a party to the WTO’s Government Procurement Agreement and SOEs are covered under that agreement.  SOEs in Armenia are subject to the same tax regime as their private competitors, and private enterprises in Armenia can compete with SOEs under the same terms and conditions. A public list of state-owned closed joint stock companies can be found on the website of the Department of State Property (http://spm.am/am/projects/  ).

Privatization Program

Most of Armenia’s state owned enterprises were privatized in the 1990s and early 2000s.  Many of the privatization processes for Armenia’s large assets were reported to be neither competitive nor transparent, and political considerations in some instances prevailed over fair tender processes.  The current law on privatization, the fifth, is the Law on the 2017–2020 Program for State Property Privatization, which lists 47 entities for privatization, of which 24 are new additions and 23 were noted in earlier laws but not privatized.  The Department of State Property Management is responsible for managing the state’s share of the entities in the privatization program.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $11,537 2017 $11,537 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $247.7 2017 $7 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $3 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 42.3% 2016 44.1% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

* Source for Host Country Data:  Statistical Committee of the Republic of Armenia


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $4,323 100% Total Outward $161 100%
Russia $1,374 31.8% Latvia $56 34.8%
Cyprus $410 9.5% Bulgaria $36 22.3%
Jersey $329 7.6% United States $3 1.8%
United Kingdom $295 6.8%
United States $250 5.8%

Source:  IMF Coordinated Direct Investment Survey (CDIS), 2017

A significant portion of outward investment is not disaggregated by destination in the CDIS.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Australia

7. State-Owned Enterprises

In Australia, the term used for a Commonwealth Government State-Owned Enterprise (SOE) is “government business enterprise” (GBE).  According to the Department of Finance, there are nine GBEs: two corporate Commonwealth entities and seven Commonwealth companies.  (See https://www.finance.gov.au/resource-management/governance/gbe/  )  Private enterprises are generally allowed to compete with public enterprises under the same terms and conditions with respect to markets, credit, and other business operations, such as licenses and supplies.  Public enterprises are not generally accorded material advantages in Australia. Remaining GBEs do not exercise power in a manner that discriminates against or unfairly burdens foreign investors or foreign-owned enterprises.

Privatization Program

Australia does not have a formal and explicit national privatization program.  Individual state and territory governments may have their own privatization programs.  Foreign investors are welcome to participate in any privatization programs subject to the rules and approvals governing foreign investment.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 $1,280,000 2017 $1,320,000 www.worldbank.org/en/country  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $132,000 2017 $168,000 http://bea.gov/international/direct_investment_multinational_companies_comprehensive_data.htm  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $83,000 2017 $67,000 http://bea.gov/international/direct_investment_multinational_companies_comprehensive_data.htm  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 10% 2018 48.1% https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

*Australian Bureau of Statistics, based on most recently available data.  Year-end foreign investment data is published in May of the following year.


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment from/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Billions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward 662.3 100% Total Outward 460.6 100%
USA 148.1 22% USA 99.3 22%
Japan 72.2 11% UK 65.4 14%
UK 64.8 10% New Zealand 48.4 11%
Netherlands 41.7 6% Singapore 15.7 3%
China 31.7 5% Papua New Guinea 12.8 3%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries $808,049 100% All Countries $515,382 100% All Countries $292,667 100%
United States $335,258 41% United States $237,834 46% United States $97,424 33%
United Kingdom $71,863 9% United Kingdom $44,153 9% United Kingdom $27,710 9%
Japan $33,282 5% Japan $27,190 5% Germany $24,514 8%
Cayman Islands $36,282 4% Switzerland $11,080 2% Japan $17,092 6%
Canada $27,724 3% Netherlands $10,778 2% Canada $14,269 5%

Austria

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Austria has two major wholly state-owned enterprises (SOEs):  The OeBB (Austrian Federal Railways) and Asfinag (highway financing, building, maintenance and administration).  Other government industry holding companies are bundled in the government holding company OeBAG (new website under construction): http://www.oebib.gv.at/en/ 

The government reformed its holding company in 2018, changing its name from OeBIB to OeBAG, incorporating energy provider Verbund AG and the state-owned real estate holding company BIG into its portfolio and increasing its oversight powers.  Under the new regulation, the government will gain direct representation in the supervisory boards of its companies (commensurate with its ownership stake), and the new holding company will be given the power to buy and sell company shares, as well as purchase minority stakes in strategically relevant companies.  Such purchases will be subject to approval from a newly-established audit committee consisting of government-nominated independent economic experts.

OeBAG holds a 53 percent stake in the Post Office, 51 percent in energy company Verbund, 33 percent in the gambling group Casinos Austria, 31.5 percent in the energy company OMV, 28 percent in the Telekom Austria Group, and a few other minor ventures.  Local governments own the majority of utilities, Vienna International Airport, and more than half of Austria’s 268 hospitals and clinics.

Private enterprises in Austria can generally compete with public enterprises under the same terms and conditions with respect to market access, credit, and other such business operations as licenses and supplies. While most SOEs must finance themselves under terms similar to private enterprises, some large SOEs (such as OeBB) benefit from state-subsidized pension systems.  As a member of the EU, Austria is also a party to the Government Procurement Agreement (GPA) of the WTO, which indirectly also covers the SOEs (since they are entities monitored by the Austrian Court of Auditors).

The five major OeBAG companies (Postal Service, Verbund AG, Casinos Austria, OMV, Telekom Austria), are listed on the Vienna stock exchange. In these cases, senior management does not directly report to a minister, but to an oversight board.  However, the government often appoints management and board members, who usually have strong political affiliations.

The Austrian Foreign Trade Act (FTA) requires advance approval by the Austrian Ministry for Digital and Economic Affairs for foreign acquisitions of a relevant stake (25 percent) in enterprises in certain strategic industries (with sales over EUR 700,000 per year), comprising a wide range of sectors.    Strategic sectors include not only internal and external security services, but also public order and safety, procurement, and crisis services. The latter include hospitals, ambulance and emergency medical services; fire fighters and civil protection services; energy and gas supply; water supply; telecoms; railways; road traffic; universities; schools of various types; and pre-schooling institutions.

Privatization Program

The government has not privatized any public enterprises since 2007.  Austrian public opinion is skeptical regarding further privatization. The current government consisting of the center-right People’s Party (OVP) and right-populist Freedom Party (FPO) is decidedly more pro-market than the previous government, but there is no plan for further privatization.

In prior privatizations, foreign and domestic investors received equal treatment.  Despite a historical government preference for maintaining blocking minority rights for domestic shareholders, foreign investors have successfully gained full control of enterprises in several strategic sectors of the Austrian economy, including in telecommunications, banking, steel, and infrastructure.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; World Bank; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Austria Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 $455,586 2017 $416,596 https://data.worldbank.org/country/austria?view=chart  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or international Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in Austria ($M USD, stock positions) 2018 $16,493 2017 $7,819 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2018 $12,646 2017 $12,303 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2018 51.5% 2017 48.5% UNCTAD data available at

https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

*Statistics Austria (GDP):
http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/wirtschaft/volkswirtschaftliche_
gesamtrechnungen/bruttoinlandsprodukt_und_hauptaggregate/jahresdaten/019505.html
 

Austrian National Bank (Investments)

https://www.oenb.at/isaweb/report.do?lang=EN&report=9.3.31 

Differences between Austrian and U.S. statistics can arise from different allocations of investments to countries (headquarters versus subsidiaries) and different survey methods


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment from/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $246,359 100% Total Outward $291,090 100%
Germany $55,214 22% Netherlands $35,917 12%
Russia $30.333 12% Germany $31,453 11%
Netherlands $27.933 11% Luxembourg $15,302 5%
Luxembourg $22.006 9% Czech Republic $14,881 5%
Switzerland $11.805 5% United States $11,178 4%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

Austria’s domestic investment figures show significant lower numbers for the Netherlands and Luxembourg. Special Purpose Entities (SPEs) may be used to avoid corporate taxes.

Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity and Investment Fund Shares Total Debt Securities
All Countries $348,992 100% All Countries $138,369 100% All Countries $210,623 100%
Germany $54,228 15% Luxembourg $46,238 33% Germany $26,126 12%
Luxembourg $53,862 15% Germany $28,103 20% France $23,711 11%
United States $33,122 9% United States $14,434 10% United States $18,689 9%
France $31.227 9% Ireland $13,864 10% Spain $15,180 7%
Ireland $19,476 6% France $7,516 5% Netherlands $15,119 7%

Azerbaijan

7. State-Owned Enterprises

In Azerbaijan, state-owned enterprises (SOEs) are active in the oil and gas, power generation, communications, water supply, railway, and air passenger and cargo sectors, among others.  There is no published list of SOEs. While there are no SOEs that officially have been delegated governmental powers, companies such as the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan (SOCAR), Azerenerji (the national electricity utility), and Azersu (the national water utility) – all of which are closed joint-stock companies with majority state ownership and limited private investment – enjoy quasi-governmental or near-monopoly status in their respective sectors.

SOCAR is wholly-owned by the government of Azerbaijan and takes part in all oil and gas activities in the country.  It publishes regular reports on production volumes, the value of its exports, estimates of investments in exploration and development, production costs, the names of foreign companies operating in the country, production data by company, quasi-fiscal activities, and the government’s portion of production-sharing contracts.  SOCAR’s annual financial reports are audited by an independent external auditor and include the consolidated accounts of all SOCAR’s subsidiaries, although revenue data is incomplete.

There have been instances where state-owned enterprises have used their regulatory authority to block new entrants into the market.  SOEs are, in principle, subject to the same tax burden and tax rebate policies as their private sector competitors.  However, in sectors that are open to both the private and foreign competition, SOEs generally receive a larger percentage of government contracts or business than their private sector competitors.  While SOEs regularly purchase or supply goods or services from private sector firms, domestic and foreign private enterprises have reported problems competing with SOEs under the same terms and conditions with respect to market share, information, products and services, and incentives.  Private enterprises do not have the same access (including terms) to financing as SOEs. SOEs are also afforded material advantages such as preferential access to land and raw materials, advantages that are not available to private enterprises. There is little information available on Azerbaijani SOEs’ budget constraints, due to the limited transparency in their financial accounts.

Privatization Program

A renewed privatization process started with the May 2016 presidential decree implementing additional measures to improve the process of state property privatization and the July 2016 decree on measures to accelerate privatization and improve the management efficiency of state property.  The State Committee on Property Issues launched a portal to provide privatization information, privatization.az  , in July 2016.  The portal contains information about the properties, their addresses, location, and initial costs with the aim of facilitating privatization.  Azerbaijan’s current privatization efforts focus on smaller state-owned properties and there are no active plans to privatize large SOEs.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 $46,939 2017 $40,748 https://data.worldbank.org/country/azerbaijan  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) No reliable data BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) No reliable data BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP No reliable data 2017 76.6% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx    

* Source for Host Country Data:  Azerbaijan State Statistical Committee


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $29,314 100% Total Outward $20,461 100%
United Kingdom $6,317 22% Turkey $10,761 53%
Turkey $5,797 20% Georgia $2,984 15%
Norway $3,063 10% Switzerland $1,237 6%
Iran $2,523 9% United Kingdom $1,013 5%
Cyprus $1,907 7% United States $594 3%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Bahamas, The

7. State-Owned Enterprises

State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs) are active in the utilities and services sectors of the economy.  There is a published list of the 25 SOEs available on www.bahamas.gov.bs  .

Key SOEs include:

  • Bahamas Air Holdings Ltd. (National Airline)
  • Public Hospitals Authority
  • Civil Aviation Authority
  • Nassau Airport Development Authority
  • University of The Bahamas
  • Health Insurance Authority
  • Bank of The Bahamas (65 percent Bahamian government)
  • Bahamas Power and Light (BPL)
  • Water and Sewerage Corporation (WSC)
  • Broadcasting Corporation of The Bahamas (ZNS)
  • Nassau Flight Services
  • Hotel Corporation of The Bahamas

The Bahamian government provides average annual subsidies of USD 400 million to support SOEs.  Within the past decade, none have returned profits or paid dividends. The Public Hospitals Authority is the largest SOE and received USD 214 million in subventions in the 2017/2018 budget.  WSC and BPL are considered essential services and receive significant budgetary support. The government has permitted investment in these sectors and has approved licenses to private suppliers of electrical and water and sewerage services.  These licenses have been issued for private real estate developments or in locations in which there is limited government capacity to provide services. An exception is the city of Freeport on the island of Grand Bahama, which has its own licensing authority and maintains monopolies for the provision of electricity, water, and sanitation services.

The Bahamian government announced plans to find a strategic partner for Nassau Flight Services, but there does not appear to be an immediate plan for the divestment of either company.  Privately owned airlines have complained of the market distortions created by Bahamas Air, claiming the national airline sells key routes below market value and benefits from not remitting licensing and other fees required by private companies.  The airline has recorded annual losses for more than two decades.

Privatization Program

The Bahamian government has not taken definitive steps to implement its proposed privatization plans but has indicated a preference for public-private partnerships as the model for privatizing key sectors.  The government divested 49 percent of the Bahamas Telecommunication Company in 2011, but issued a second license for cellular services and retained 51 percent equity in the new company. In his February 2018 speech, the Deputy Prime Minister serving as Minister of Finance announced the government’s intention to divest additional equity in the Bahamian telecommunications sector.  In February 2109, the Bahamian government selected UK-based Global Ports Holding’s $250 million proposal to redevelop the New Providence cruise terminal.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (M USD) 2017 N/A 2017 $12,162 https://data.worldbank.org/country/bahamas  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country (M USD, stock positions) 2017 N/A 2017 $23,387 BEA data available at http://bea.gov/international/direct_investment_multinational_companies_comprehensive_data.htm  
Host country’s FDI in the United States (M USD, stock positions) 2017 N/A 2017 $297 BEA data available at http://bea.gov/international/direct_investment_multinational_companies_comprehensive_data.htm  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017   N/A 2017 225% N/A


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Data not available.

Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Bahrain

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Bahrain’s major state-owned enterprises (SOEs) include the Bahrain Petroleum Company (BAPCO), Aluminum Bahrain (ALBA), Gulf Petrochemical Industries Company (GPIC), Gulf Air, Bahrain Telecommunications Company (BATELCO), the National Bank of Bahrain (NBB) Bahrain Flour Mills, Tatweer Petroleum, and the Arab Shipbuilding & Repair Yard (ASRY).  While the GOB maintains full ownership of oil production, refineries, and heavy industries, it allows investment in ALBA, BATELCO, and ASRY, and encourages private sector competition in the banking, manufacturing, telecommunications, shipyard repair, and real estate sectors.

The SOEs are managed by two government-run holding companies: the National Oil and Gas Authority (NOGA) Holding Company, which owns nine energy sector companies, and Mumtalakat, which owns 38 domestic companies in all other sectors.  The full portfolio of the NOGA Holding Company can be viewed at www.nogaholding.com/portfolio/  , while the full portfolio of Mumtalakat companies can be viewed at www.bmhc.bh  .

Bahrain is not a party to the WTO Government Procurement Agreement (GPA), however, in 2008 Bahrain was granted “observer” status in the GPA committee.

Private enterprises can, in theory, compete with SOEs under the same terms and conditions with respect to market share, products/services, and incentives.  In practice, however, given the relatively small size of Bahrain’s economy, large SOEs such as ALBA, BAPCO, GPIC and ASRY have an outsized influence in the market.

In 2002, the GOB instituted guidelines to ensure its SOEs were in line with OECD policies on corporate governance.  SOEs produce quarterly reports. The National Audit Office monitors all SOEs and annually reports any irregularities, mismanagement, and corruption.

To enhance transparency and accountability the government appointed the Minister of Industry, Commerce and Tourism to be responsible for Mumtalakat.  The Minister of Oil and Gas is responsible for NOGA Holding, and all the companies under its umbrella.

All Bahraini SOEs have an independent board of trustees with well-structured management.  The Mumtalakat Holding Company is represented by a Board of Trustees appointed by the Crown Prince, while NOGA Holding’s Board of Trustees is appointed by a Royal Decree.  Each holding company then appoints the Board of Trustees for the SOEs under its authority. In some cases, the appointment of the Board of Trustees is politically driven.

Privatization Program

The GOB has been supportive of privatization as part of its Vision 2030 economic development plan, and it advocates for increased foreign investment as a means of driving private sector growth.  The GOB’s decision to privatize the telecommunications sector in the early 2000s is an example of incentivizing private sector growth in Bahrain. In 2018, the GOB began to privatize some medical services, such as pre-employment screenings that it previously had conducted.  It has also begun the process of privatizing by 2030 certain support services at GOB medical facilities, such as transportation, cleaning, laundry, textiles, maintenance, and security.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $3,540 2017 $3,543 https://www.cbb.gov.bh/fact-sheet  

https://data.worldbank.org/country/bahrain  

Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $3,165 2017 $423 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $2,573 2017 $281 https://www.selectusa.gov/country-fact-sheet/Bahrain  
http://www.data.gov.bh/en/ResourceCenter  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 77.5% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $26,574 100% Total Outward $19,233 100%
Kuwait $7,442 28% Kuwait $5,299 28%
Saudi Arabia $6,522 25% India $4,475 23%
Libya $3,348 13% United  States $1,266 7%
United Arab Emirates  $2,282 9% Cayman Islands $1,251 7%
Cayman Islands $1,742 7% Egypt $726 4%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries $39,501 100% All Countries $8,261 100% All Countries $31,239 100%
UAE $5,502 14% Cayman Islands $2,036 25% UAE $4,936 16%
United States $5,145 13% United States $1,511 18% Turkey $4,072 13%
  Turkey $4,089 10% Saudi Arabia $708 9% United States $3,633 12%
Cayman Islands $3,252 9% UAE $565 7% Not Specified $2,508 8%
Qatar $2,794 7% Qatar $374 5% Qatar $2,420 8%

Bangladesh

7. State-Owned Enterprises

The government privatized 74 state-owned enterprises (SOEs) during the past 20 years, but many SOEs retain an important role in the economy, particularly in the financial and energy sectors.  Out of the 74 SOEs, 54 were privatized through outright sale and 20 through offloading of shares. The Privatization Commission (PC) has slowed its rate of privatization activities and in 2016, the PC merged with the Board of Investment (BOI) to form a new Bangladesh Investment Development Authority (BIDA).  The 54 non-financial public enterprises in the country have been categorized into 7 sectors following the Bangladesh Standard Industrial Classification (BSIC) and their economic and financial performances are analyzed in the government budget.

Bangladesh’s 45 non-financial SOEs are spread among seven sectors – industrial; power, gas and water; transport and communication; trade; agriculture; construction; and services.  The list of non-financial SOEs and relevant budget details are published in Bangla in the Ministry of Finance’s SOE Budget Summary 2017-18: http://www.mof.gov.bd/site/page/5eed2680-c68c-4782-9070-13e129548aac/SOE-Budget  .

The current government has taken steps to restructure several SOEs to improve their competitiveness.  The GOB converted Biman Bangladesh Airline, the national airline, into a public limited company that initiated a rebranding and fleet renewal program, including the purchase of ten aircraft from Boeing, eight of which were delivered as of March 2019.  Three nationalized commercial banks (NCBs)—Sonali, Janata, and Agrani—have been converted to public limited companies. The GOB also liberalized the telecommunications sector in the last decade, which led to the development of a competitive cellular phone market.

The contribution of SOEs to gross domestic product, value-added production, employment generation, and revenue earning is substantial.  SOEs usually report to the ministries, though the government has allowed some enhanced autonomy for certain SOEs, such as Biman Bangladesh Airline.  SOEs maintain control of rail transportation whereas private companies compete freely in air and road transportation. The corporate governance structure of SOEs in Bangladesh has been restructured as per the guidelines published by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), but the country’s practices are still not up to OECD standards.  There are no guidelines regarding ownership of SOEs, and while SOEs are required to prepare annual reports and make financial disclosures, disclosure documents are often unavailable to the public.  Each SOE has an independent board of directors composed of both government and private sector nominees. The boards report to the relevant regulatory ministry.  Most SOEs have strong ties with the government, and the ruling government party nominates most SOE leaders.  As the government controls most of the SOEs, domestic courts tend to favor the SOEs in investment disputes.

The Bangladesh Petroleum Act of 1974 grants authority for the government to award natural resources contracts and the Bangladesh Oil, Gas and Mineral Corporation Ordinance of 1984 gives Petrobangla, the state-owned oil and gas company, authority to assess and award natural resource contracts and licenses, to both SOEs and private companies.  Currently, oil and gas firms can pursue exploration and production ventures only through production sharing agreements with Petrobangla.

Privatization Program

Since 2010, the government’s privatization drive has slowed.  Previous privatization drives were plagued with allegations of corruption, undervaluation, political favoritism, and unfair competition.  Nonetheless, the government has publicly stated its goal of continuing the privatization drive. SOEs can be privatized through a variety of methods including: sales through international tender; sales of government shares in the capital market; transfers of some portion of the shares to the employees of the enterprises when shares are sold through the stock exchange; sale of government shares to a private equity company (restructuring); mixed sales methods; management contracts; leasing; and direct asset sales (liquidation).  In 2010, 22 SOEs were included in the Privatization Commission’s (now the Bangladesh Investment Development Authority’s) program for privatization. However, a study on privatized industries in Bangladesh conducted by the Privatization Commission in 2010 found that only 59 percent of the entities were in operation after being privatized and 20 percent of them were permanently closed down—implying a lack of planning or business motivation of their private owners. Later, in 2014, the government declared that SOEs would not be privatized via direct selling but instead by the offloading of shares in the SOE.  The government believed this to be a viable way for ensuring greater accountability for the management of the SOEs while minimizing the government’s exposure. However, unless the offloading of shares involves more than 50 percent of the SOE’s shares, the government would not divest control over the SOE. Additional information is available on the BIDA website at: http://bida.gov.bd/?page_id=4771 .

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $249,700 2016 $221,400 https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=BD  
Foreign Direct Investment 2017 $2,200 2016 $2,300 UNCTAD World Investment Report 2018  
U.S. FDI in Partner Country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $460 2016 $458 https://www.bea.gov/international/factsheet/factsheet.cfm?Area=631  
Host Country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $2 2016 N/A https://www.bea.gov/international/factsheet/factsheet.cfm?Area=631  
Total Inbound Stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 0.86% 2016 1.05% https://unctad.org/en/pages/PublicationWebflyer.aspx?publicationid=2130  


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment from/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $14,091 100% Total Outward $328 100%
United States $3,316 23.5% United Kingdom $84 25.6%
United Kingdom $1,559 11.1% China, P.R.: Hong Kong $76 23.2%
Singapore $934 6.6% Nepal $44 13.4%
Australia $860 6.1% India $42 12.8%
South Korea $811 5.8% United Arab Emirates $31 9.5%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets (June, 2018)
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries $3,584 100% All Countries $10 100% All Countries $3,574 100%
-United States $587 16.4% Pakistan $10 100% United States $587 16.4%
Germany $581 16.2% N/A N/A N/A Germany $581 16.3%
United Kingdom $383 10.7% N/A N/A N/A United Kingdom $383 10.7%
Spain $235 6.6% N/A N/A N/A Spain $235 6.6%
France $201 5.6% N/A N/A N/A France $201 5.6%

Barbados

7. State-Owned Enterprises

State-owned enterprises (SOEs) in Barbados work in partnership with ministries, or under their remit, and carry out certain specific ministerial responsibilities.  There are currently about 60 SOEs in Barbados operating in areas such as tourism, investment services, broadcasting and media, sanitation services, sports, and culture.

SOEs in Barbados are not found in the key areas earmarked for investment.  They are all wholly-owned government entities. They are headed by boards of directors to which their senior management reports.

As part of the ongoing Barbados Economic Recovery and Transformation Program, the government of Barbados is addressing the expenditure position of the SOEs by defining clear objectives for SOE reform, reducing the wage bill of these entities, and implementing other necessary reform measures.

Privatization Program

Barbados does not have a targeted privatization program.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:  BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 $5,036 2017 $4673 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:  BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $20,368 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $2,069 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as  percent host GDP N/A N/A 2018 148.7 percent UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World percent20Investment percent20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx    

* Source for Host Country Data: Central Bank of Barbados (CBB) hhttp://data.centralbank.org.bb/GeneralStatistics.aspx   . All CBB GDP figures for 2018 are estimates.


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Data not available; Barbados does not appear in the IMF’s Coordinated Direct Investment Survey.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available; Barbados does not appear in the IMF’s Coordinated Portfolio Investment Survey for Sources of Portfolio Investment.

Belarus

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Although SOEs are outnumbered by private businesses, SOEs dominate the economy in terms of assets.  According to independent economic experts, the share of Belarus’ GDP derived from SOEs is at least 75 percent.  Belarus does not consider joint stock companies, even those with 100 percent government ownership of the stocks, to be state-owned and generally refers to them as part of the non-state sector, rendering official government statistics regarding the role of SOEs in the economy as misleading.

According to independent economic media reports, SOEs receive preferential access to government contracts, subsidized credits, and debt forgiveness.  While SOEs are generally subject to the same tax burden and tax rebate policies as their private sector competitors, private enterprises do not have the same preferential access to land and raw materials.  Since Belarus is not a WTO member, it is not a party to the Government Procurement Agreement (GPA).

Privatization Program

Belarus’ privatization program is in practice extremely limited.  There was no privatization of state-controlled companies in 2018, one SOE was bought by private investors in 2017, and there were zero companies or shares privatizatized in 2016.  In early 2019, Belarus’ State Property Committee approved a list of 23 joint stock companies for full or partially privatization in 2019.  The GOB is allowing sale of the government share in these companies on the condition that the purchasing investors preserve existing jobs and production lines. For a list of open-joint stock companies whose shares which are available for privatization, as well as a description of the asset and conditions for privatization, visit: http://www.gki.gov.by/ru/auction-auinf-auishares/  .

Investors interested in assets on the published privatization list are encouraged to forward a brief letter of interest to the State Property Committee.  A special commission reviews offers and makes a recommendation to the President on the process of privatization – via tender, auction, or direct sale. Investors may also send a letter of interest regarding assets that are not on the State Property Committee list and the government will examine such offers.

Additionally, the State Property Committee occasionally organizes and holds privatization auctions.  Many of the auctions organized by the State Property Committee have low demand as the government conditions privatizations with strict requirements, including preserving or creating jobs, continuing in the same line of work or production, or launching a successful business project within a limited period of time, etc.

In 2016, Belarusian joint stocks were allowed trans-border placement of their stocks via issuing depositary receipts.  However, to the Embassy’s knowledge, this instrument of attracting investments has not been put to test in Belarus.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

According to official statistics, Belarus received USD 1.6 billion in FDI (on a net basis) in 2018, up from USD 1.24 billion in FDI in 2017 and USD 1.3 billion in 2016.  Russia (41.7 percent), Cyprus (13.5 percent), China (9.3 percent), Germany (5.5 percent), UAE (3.6 percent), Poland (3.4 percent), Ireland (2.8 percent), Latvia (2.5 percent), the United Kingdom (2.4 percent) and the United States (2.1 percent) are considered the top ten foreign investors in Belarus.   

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

National Statistical Committee of the Republic of Belarus (Belstat) USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 $59,600 2018 $59,700 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Belarus’ National Bank USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2018 $54.5 2018 N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $39 2018 N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2018 14.3% 2018 34.8% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx    

For detailed statistics on foreign direct investments in and outside Belarus for 2010-2018 see the website of Belarus’ National Bank (http://www.nbrb.by/engl/statistics/ForeignDirectInvestments/  ) and Economy Ministry (https://www.economy.gov.by/ru/pezultat-ru/  ).


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $19,795 100% Total Outward $872 100%
Russian Federation $10,971 55.4% Russian Federation $647 74.2%
Cyprus $3,407 17.2% Cyprus $70 8.0%
Austria $618 3.1% Ukraine $37 4.2%
Netherlands $497 2.5% Venezuela, Rep. Bol $34 3.8%
Switzerland $320 1.6% Lithuania $29 3.3%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries $1,851 100% All Countries $1 100% All Countries $1,850 100%
Luxembourg $668 36.1% Estonia $1 100% Luxembourg $668 36.1%
United States $424 22.9% United States $424 22.9%
Russian Federation $353 19.1% Russian Federation $353 19.1%
Germany $119 6.4% Germany $119 6.4%
Denmark $52 2.8% Denmark $52 2.8%

For the latest available statistics on foreign portfolio investments in Belarus see the website of Belrus’ National Bank:  http://www.nbrb.by/engl/statistics/PortfolioInvestment  

Belgium

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Belgium does not have any State Owned Enterprises (SOEs) that exercise delegated government powers.  Private enterprises are allowed to compete with public enterprises under the same terms and conditions, but since the EU started to liberalize network industries such as electricity, gas, water, telecoms and railways, there have been regular complaints in Belgium about unfair competition from the former state monopolists.  Complaints have ranged from lower salaries (railways) to lower VAT rates (gas and electricity) to regulators with a conflict of interest (telecom). Although these complaints have now largely subsided, many of these former monopolies are now market leaders in their sector, due mainly to their ability to charge high access costs to networks fully amortized years ago. However, former telecom monopolist Proximus still features on the EU’s list of companies receiving state aid.  Belgium has about 80,000 employees working in SOEs, mainly in the railways, telecoms and general utility sectors. There are also several regional-owned enterprises where the regions often have a controlling majority: for a full listing on the companies located in Wallonia, see www.actionnariatwallon.be  .  There is no equivalent website for companies located in Flanders or in Brussels. Details on the shareholders of the Bel20 (benchmark stock market index of Euronext Brussels) can be found on http://www.gresea.be/Qui-sont-les-actionnaires-du-BEL-20  .

Privatization Program

Belgium currently has no ongoing privatization programs.  There are ongoing discussions about the possible privatization of the state-owned bank Belfius and the government share in telecom operator Proximus, in which the government needs to weigh of the benefits of a one-time sale against the recurring stream of dividends generated by these holdings.  There are no indications that foreign investors would be excluded from these eventual privatizations.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $485 2017 $492,000 https://data.worldbank.org/country/belgium  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $55,000 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $103,000 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 122.5% UNCTAD data available at

https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx    

* Source for Host Country Data:
GDP: https://stat.nbb.be/Index.aspx?ThemeTreeId=41&lang=fr#  
National Bank of Belgium offers different statistics, but it does not match the BEA stats. https://stat.nbb.be/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=INVDIR  


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward 582,571 100% Total Outward 689,726 100%
Netherlands 166,767 28.6% Netherlands 247,827 35.9%
Luxembourg 154,808 26.5% Luxembourg 184,845 26.8%
France 148,682 25.5% UK 131,719 19.1%
Switzerland 55,845 9.5% France 45,175 6.5%
Japan 16,404 2.8% Germany 13,245 1.9%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

New link: http://data.imf.org/CPIS   

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries 830,102 100% All Countries 426,482 100% All Countries 403,620 100%
Luxembourg  248,149 29.9% Luxembourg 209,411 49.1% France 74,216 18.4%
France 141,086 17% France 66,870 15.7% Netherlands 48,685 12.1%
Netherlands 67,411 8.1% United States 30,333 7.1% Luxembourg 38,738 9.6%
Germany 56,359 6.7% Germany 29,758 7% Spain 27,172 6.7%
U.S 54,123 6.5% Ireland 23,993 5.6% Germany 26,600 6.6%

Belize

7. State-Owned Enterprises

State Owned Enterprises (SOEs) are active in the utilities sectors.  The Government is the majority shareholder in the Belize Water Services Limited, the country’s sole provider of water services, the Belize Electricity Limited, the sole distributor electricity, and the Belize Telemedia Limited, the largest telecommunications provider in the country.

SOEs usually engage senior government officials, and at times include members of local business bureaus and chambers of commerce, labor organizations, and quasi-governmental agencies, as a part of their management and board of directors.  The board guides the direction, policies, and decisions of the SOE that ostensibly is independent, but in practice has included high-ranking government officials as well as close relatives of government officials. Current and previous administrations are accused of nepotism in staffing as well as conflicts of interest when board members or directors are also represented in organizations that do business with the SOEs.

There is no published list of SOEs.  The following are the major SOEs operating in the country. Information relating to their operations are available on their website, including their audited financial reports:

There are no third party market analysis sources that evaluate whether SOEs receive non-market advantages by the government.  The Belize Electricity Limited and the Belize Water Services Limited are the only service providers in their respective sectors.  The Belize Telemedia Services, on the other hand, competes with one other provider for mobile connectivity and there are multiple players that provide internet and data services.  The Public Utilities Commission regulates all utilities.

Privatization Program

The Government does not currently have a privatization program.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 $1,925 2017 $1,863 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2018 $152.48  2017 $74 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A N/A N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 118.3% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

* Source for Host Country Data: Statistical Institute of Belize, Central Bank of Belize


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Statistics on foreign direct investments in Belize by country of origin is limited, including the total invested by U.S. investors.  The Central Bank of Belize recorded total inflows of FDI at USD152.48 million in 2018 and outflows at USD32.933 million in the same period.  Major sources of FDI include the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom. FDI inflows are traditionally concentrated primarily in real estate, construction, reinvested earnings and the agriculture sectors.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Benin

7. State-Owned Enterprises

There are several wholly owned SOEs operating in the country, including mainly public utilities (electricity and water), fixed and mobile telecommunications, postal services, port and airport management, gas distribution, pension funds, agricultural production, and hotel and convention center management.  There are also a number of partially owned SOEs in Benin. Some of these receive subsidies and assistance from the government. There are no available statistics regarding the number of individuals employed by SOEs.

With the exception of public utilities (including electricity and water), pension funds, and landline telephone service for which the public telephone company retains a monopoly, many private enterprises compete with public enterprises on equal terms.

SOE senior management may report directly to a government ministry, a parent agency, or a board of directors comprised of senior government officials along with representatives of civil society and other parastatal constituencies.  SOEs are required by law to publish annual reports and hold regular meetings of their boards of directors. Financial statements of SOEs are reviewed by certified accountants, private auditors, and the government’s Bureau of Analysis and Investigation (BAI).  Though the government audit institution has the authority to conduct a review of SOE financial statements, it has yet to do so.

SOEs are established pursuant to presidential decrees, which define their mission and responsibilities.  The government appoints senior management and members of the Board of Directors. SOEs are generally run like private entities and are subject to the same tax policies as the private sector.  The courts independently process disputes between SOEs and private companies or organizations without government interference.

Benin is not a member of OECD.

Privatization Program

The government has elected to support targeted divestiture programs rather than total privatization of State-Owned Enterprises.  The state-owned telecommunications company, Benin Telecom Infrastructure, is targeted for either a divestiture program or dissolution by 2021.  The state-owned electricity utility, Société Béninoise d’Energie Electrique (SBEE) will soon be managed privately through a management contract, even though the government will retain full ownership.  Through the second MCC compact on power there will be increased opportunities for Independent Power Producers (IPP) to participate in solar power generation.

Foreign investors may participate in privatization programs.  In March 2015, the governments of Benin and Niger jointly signed a document that would dissolve the Benin-Niger Railway Organization (OCBN) parastatal and assign its concession to foreign private investors.

In December 2017, the government authorized the Minister of Infrastructure and Transport to sign a three-year renewable management contract for the Port of Cotonou with the Belgian firm Port of Antwerp International (PAI).  PAI accordingly took over management of the port in May 2018.  The move is intended in part to attract foreign investors to fund updates to and expansion of the port.

The government procurement process is specified by the Beninese procurement code (Code des Marchés Publiques:  http://www.finances.bj/spip.php?article804  ).  Tenders from the central government are announced in major publications, newspapers, and posted on the website of the Ministry of Finance and Economy at www.finances.bj  However, in practice the government frequently uses sole sourcing for PAG implementation, and in these cases does not publish procurement requests before selecting a vendor.  Published tenders often include local investor participation requirements.

Beninese procurement law allows for open and closed bid processes.  Contracts are often awarded based on government solicitations to short-listed companies with industry-specific expertise, often identified based on companies’ commercial activities conducted in other overseas markets.  The public procurement process is not always deemed non-discriminatory. Foreign companies have expressed concerns about unfair treatment, biased consideration, and improper practices specific to the process of selecting short-listed companies.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Benin/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2015 $8,291 2017 $9,247 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $2.0 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $0.0 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 22.3% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

* Source for Host Country Data: Institut National de la Statistique et de l’Analyse Économique


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $2,528 100% Total Outward $370 100%
France $1,284 49.76% France $142 38.37%
Cote d’Ivoire $289 11.43% Senegal $72 19.45%
Senegal $196 7.75% Kenya $38 10.27%
Morocco $192 7.19% Cote d’Ivoire $33 8.91%
China $81 3.20% Mali $24 6.48%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Bolivia

7. State-Owned Enterprises

The Bolivian Government has set up companies in sectors it considers strategic to the national interest and social well-being, and has stated that it plans to do so in every sector it considers strategic or where there is either a monopoly or oligopoly.

The Bolivian Government owns and operates more than 60 businesses including energy and mining companies, a telecommunications company, a satellite company, a bank, a sugar factory, an airline, a packaging plant, paper and cardboard factories, and milk and Brazil nut processing factories, among others.  In 2005, income from state-owned business in Bolivia other than gas exports represented only a fraction of a percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP).  As of 2015, public sector contribution to GDP (including SOEs, investments, and consumption of goods and services) has risen to over 40 percent of GDP.

The largest SOEs are able to acquire credit from the Central Bank at very low interest rates and convenient terms.  Some private companies complain that it is impossible for them to compete with this financial subsidy.  Moreover, SOEs appear to benefit from easier access to licenses, supplies, materials and land; however, there is no law specifically providing SOEs with preferential treatment in this regard.  In many cases, government entities are directed to do business with SOEs, placing other private companies and investors at a competitive disadvantage.

The government registered budget surpluses from 2006 until 2013, but began experiencing budget deficits in 2014.  Close to 50 percent of the deficit was explained by the performance of SOEs, such as Bolivia’s state-owned oil and gas company.  According to the 2009 Constitution, all SOEs are required to publish an annual report and are subject to financial audits.  Additionally, SOEs are required to present an annual testimony in front of civil society and social movements, a practice known as social control.

Privatization Program

There are currently no privatization programs in Bolivia.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount  
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $37,782 2017 $37,509 www.worldbank.org/en/country 
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $598 2017 $598 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data 
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $2 2017 $2 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data 
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 1.8% 2017 1.6% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx 

 

* Source for Host Country Data: BEA, UNCTAD, World Bank


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward 12,211 100% Total Outward 736 100%
Spain 2,886 23.6% Netherlands 286 38.8%
Sweden 2,166 17.7% Spain 172 23.4%
Netherlands 1,112 9.1% Brazil 80 10.9%
United States 790 6.5% Panama 63 8.6%
France 761 6.2% Canada 33 4.5%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

 

Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries 5,667 100% All Countries 919 100% All Countries 1,748 100%
United States 2,356 41.6% Other Countries (not specified) 442 48.1% United States 2,290 48.2%
France 518 9.1% Cayman Islands 410 44.7% France 518 10.9%
Cayman Islands 410 7.2% United States 66 7.2% Japan 150 3.2%
Japan 150 2.6% South Korea 112 2.4%
South Korea 112 2.0% Canada 111 2.3%

Bosnia and Herzegovina

7. State-Owned Enterprises

In BiH, subnational governments own the vast majority of government-owned companies: the two entities and ten cantons.  Private enterprises can compete with state-own enterprises (SOEs) under the same terms and conditions with respect to market share, products/services, and incentives.  In practice, however, SOEs have the advantage over private enterprises, especially in sectors such as telecommunications and electricity, where government-owned enterprises have traditionally held near-monopolies and are able to influence regulators and courts in their favor.  Generally, government-owned companies are controlled by political parties, increasing the possibilities for corruption and inefficient company management. With the exception of SOEs in the telecom, electricity, and defense sectors, many of the remaining public companies are bankrupt or on the verge of insolvency, and represent a growing liability to the government.

The country is not party to the Government Procurement Agreement within the framework of the WTO.

Privatization Program

There have been no significant privatizations in the past few years.  Privatization offerings are scarce and often require unfavorable terms.  Some formerly successful state-owned enterprises have accrued significant debts from unpaid health and pension contributions, and potential investors are required to assume these debts and maintain the existing workforce.  Under the state-level FDI Law, foreign investors may bid on privatization tenders. International financial organizations, such as the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) are seeking to be engaged on privatization and restructuring efforts across the remaining portfolio of state owned enterprises.  Historically, the privatization process in BiH has resulted in economic loss due to corruption. From 1999 to 2015, more than 1,000 companies were fully privatized, while around 100 were partially privatized. The bad privatizations led to the loss of value of state property and many of the privatized companies were weakened or ruined in the privatization process.  The history of corrupt privatizations has resulted in a public view that privatization just leads to unemployment and the enrichment of a few politically-connected individuals. Well-done privatizations and restructurings that improve service delivery, business productivity, and employment would be very beneficial for the BiH economy, could help the image of privatization, and would build support for a long overdue shift away from a government-led economy.

The Federation government is focused on privatizing or restructuring some SOEs based on the Federation Agency for Privatization’s 2018 privatization plan.  The privatization plan includes the fuel retailer Energopetrol dd. Sarajevo, the engineering company Energoinvest, the aluminum smelter Aluminij Mostar and the insurer Sarajevo-Osiguranje.  In 2016, the Federation Government sold its stake in the Sarajevo Tobacco Factory (39.9 percent stake), and BiH’s largest pharmaceutical company, Bosnalijek (19 percent stake). The remaining companies listed in the privatization plan have posted losses and suffered significant declines in their value, while others have only a small amount of government ownership. The Federation government rejected media speculation that it plans to privatize the two majority government-owned telecom companies, BH Telecom (90 percent stake) and HT Mostar (50.1 percent stake).  At the same time, it has completed due diligence on the two telecom companies as part of its arrangement with the IMF.

The privatization process in the RS is carried out by the RS Investment Development Bank (IRBRS).  Many prospective companies have been already privatized, and out of 163 not yet privatized companies, many are being liquidated or undergoing bankruptcy.  In 2016, the RS government announced plans to sell its capital in 22 companies but the plan has not been implemented yet. The plan envisions the privatizations to take place via the sale of government shares on the stock exchange.  Although the RS National Assembly passed a decision that the entity has no plans to privatize the energy sector, the RS government maintains the possibility of joint ventures in the energy sector.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $18,050 2016 $16,000 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI ($M USD, stock positions)     2018 $250
(estimate)
N/A N/A N/A
FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Total inbound stock of FDI as %  GDP ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A


Table 3: Sources of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward Amount 100% Total Outward Amount 100%
Austria $1,610 19.2% N/A N/A N/A
Croatia $1,420  16.7% N/A N/A N/A
Serbia $1,410  16.7% N/A N/A N/A
Slovenia $628  7.5% N/A N/A N/A
Netherlands $520 6.2% N/A N/A N/A
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

According to the BiH Central Bank, FDI in BiH in 2018 amounted to USD 458 million.  In 2017 total FDI in BiH was USD 445 million. The all-time high for FDI was USD 2.1 billion in 2007.  Most investments in 2013-2018 came from Croatia, Austria, Russia, Serbia, UAE, and the United Kingdom.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

There is no data available from the IMF’s Coordinated Portfolio Investment Survey regarding sources of Portfolio Investment in BiH.

Botswana

7. State-Owned Enterprises

State-owned enterprises (SOEs), known as “parastatals,” are majority or 100 percent owned by the GoB.  There is a published list of SOEs at the GoB portal (www.gov.bw  ) with profiles of financial and development SOEs. Some SOEs are state-sanctioned monopolies, including the Botswana Meat Commission, the Water Utilities Corporation, Botswana Railways, and the Botswana Power Corporation.

The same business registration and licensing laws govern private and government-owned enterprises.  No law or regulation prohibits or restricts private enterprises from competing with SOEs. Botswana law requires SOEs to publish annual reports, and private sector accountants or the Auditor General audits SOEs depending on how they are constituted.  GoB ministries together with their respective SOEs are compelled on an annual basis to appear before Parliamentary Public Accounts committee to provide reports and answer questions regarding their performance. Some SOEs are not performing well and have been embroiled in scandals involving alleged fraud and mismanagement.

Botswana is not party to the Government Procurement Agreement within the framework of the WTO.

Privatization Program

The GOB has committed to privatization on paper.  It established a task force in 1997 to privatize all of its state-owned companies and formed a Public Enterprises Evaluation and Privatization Agency (PEEPA) to oversee this process.  Implementation of its privatization commitments has been limited to the January 2016 sale offer of 49 percent of the stock of the state-owned Botswana Telecommunications Corporation to Botswana citizens only.  In February 2017, the GOB issued an Expressions of Interest for the privatization of its national airline, but progress stopped due to the decision to re-fleet the airline before privatization. Conversely, the GoB has created new SOEs such as the Okavango Diamond Company, the Mineral Development Company, and Botswana Oil Limited in recent years.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $17,380 2017 $17,410 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2015 $32 2015 $19 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2016 $-1 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 35.8% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

According to the Bank of Botswana, investment in Botswana totaled 84.75 billion pula in 2016, of which 31 billion pula were non-FDI investments.  Africa (33.3 percent) and Europe (64.4 percent) accounted for most of the 54 billion pula influx of FDI. Within these regions, South Africa and United Kingdom were the predominant players, accounting for 9.7 and 32.5 billion pula respectively.  Little data on FDI sources is available for countries and regions with limited investments in Botswana. Retail and Wholesale Trade surpassed the mining sector in 2016 to account for 38.9 percent of Foreign Investment inflows.

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $5.05 100% N/A N/A N/A
Africa $1.69 33.5% N/A N/A N/A
Europe $3.25 64.3% N/A N/A N/A
Asia Pacific $0.09 1.8% N/A N/A N/A
North & Central America $0.02 0.4% N/A N/A N/A
Other $0 0% N/A N/A N/A
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

IMF Coordinated Direct Investment Survey data are not available for Botswana.  Equity securities represent 82 percent of Botswana’s portfolio investment assets abroad.  Information about country destination of these portfolio investments is not available.

Brazil

7. State-Owned Enterprises

The GoB maintains ownership interests in a variety of enterprises at both the federal and state levels.  Typically, boards responsible for state-owned enterprise (SOE) corporate governance are comprised of directors elected by the state or federal government with additional directors elected by any non-government shareholders.  Although Brazil, a non-OECD member, has participated in many OECD working groups, it does not follow the OECD Guidelines on Corporate Governance of SOEs. Brazilian SOEs are concentrated in the oil and gas, electricity generation and distribution, transportation, and banking sectors.  A number of these firms also see a portion of their shares publically traded on the Brazilian and other stock exchanges.

In the 1990s and early 2000s, the GoB privatized many state-owned enterprises across a broad spectrum of industries, including mining, steel, aeronautics, banking, and electricity generation and distribution.  While the GoB divested itself from many of its SOEs, it maintained partial control (at both the federal and state level) of some previously wholly state-owned enterprises. This control can include a “golden share” whereby the government can exercise veto power over proposed mergers or acquisitions.  

Notable examples of majority government owned and controlled firms include national oil and gas giant Petrobras and power conglomerate Eletrobras.  Both Petrobras and Eletrobras include non-government shareholders, are listed on both the Brazilian and NYSE stock exchanges, and are subject to the same accounting and audit regulations as all publicly-traded Brazilian companies.  Brazil previously restricted foreign investment in offshore oil and gas development through 2010 legislation that obligated Petrobras to serve as the sole operator and minimum 30 percent investor in any oil and gas exploration and production in Brazil’s prolific offshore pre-salt fields.  As a result of the GoB’s desire to increase foreign investment in Brazil’s hydrocarbon sector, in October 2016 the Brazilian Congress granted foreign companies the right to serve as sole operators in pre-salt exploration and production activities and eliminated Petrobras’ obligation to serve as a minority equity holder in pre-salt oil and gas operations.  Nevertheless, the 2016 law still gives Petrobras right-of-first refusal in developing pre-salt offshore fields before those areas are available for public auction.  Industry estimates project bonuses of USD 26.3 billion by opening the Brazilian oil and gas market to foreign investment.

Privatization Program

Given limited public investment funding, the GoB has focused on privatizing state–owned energy, airport, road, railway, and port assets through long-term (up to 30 year) infrastructure concession agreements.  Eletrobras successfully sold its six principal, highly-indebted power distributors. The SOE is currently working to begin a capitalization process to reduce the GoB’s share holdings in the company to less than 50 percent.  The process cannot move forward, however, until Congress passes a bill authorizing the reduction. In 2018, Petrobras faced criticism over its daily fuel adjustment policy and a major 12-day truckers strike hit Brazil and forced the resignation of Petrobras’ CEO Pedro Parente.  To end the strike, the GoB eliminated the collection of the CIDE tax over diesel and gave a USD 3 billion subsidy to diesel producers (mainly Petrobras) to reduce the prices to consumers (primarily truckers).

In 2016, Brazil launched its newest version of these efforts to promote privatization of primary infrastructure.  The Temer administration created the Investment Partnership Program (PPI) to expand and accelerate the concession of public works projects to private enterprise and the privatization of some state entities.  PPI covers federal concessions in road, rail, ports, airports, municipal water treatment, electricity transmission and distribution, and oil and gas exploration and production contracts. Between 2016 and 2018, PPI auctioned off 124 projects and collected USD 62.5 billion in investments.  The full list of PPI projects is located at: https://www.ppi.gov.br/schedule-of-projects 

While some subsidized financing through BNDES will be available, PPI emphasizes the use of private financing and debentures for projects.  All federal and state-level infrastructure concessions are open to foreign companies with no requirement to work with Brazilian partners. In 2017, Brazil launched the Agora é Avançar initiative for promoting investments in primary infrastructure, and this has supported several projects.  Details can be found at: www.avancar.gov.br .The latest information available about Avançar Parcerias is from September 30, 2018.  From over 7,000 projects, the program has completed 36.5 percent and 92.2 percent are in progress.

In 2008, the Ministry of Health initiated the use of Production Development Partnerships (PDPs) to reduce the increasing dependence of Brazil’s healthcare sector on international drug production and the need to control costs in the public healthcare system, services that are an entitlement enumerated in the constitution.  The healthcare sector accounts for 9 percent of GDP, 10 percent of skilled jobs, and more than 25 percent of research and development nationally. These agreements provide a framework for technology transfer and development of local production by leveraging the volume purchasing power of the Ministry of Health. In the current administration, there is increasing interest in PDPs as a cost saving measure.  U.S. companies have both competed for these procurements and at times raised concerns about the potential for PDPs to be used to subvert intellectual property protections under the WTO’s Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($ USD) 2017 $2,053 trillion 2017 $2.056 trillion www.worldbank.org/en/country  
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions)

BCB data, year-end.

2017 $95,100 2017 $68,300 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  

*U.S. is historical-cost basis

Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $16,070 2017 ($2,030) BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  

*U.S. is historical-cost basis

Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 26.29% 2017 36.4% UNCTAD data available at

https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx    

* IBGE and BCB data, year-end.


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment from/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, billions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward 635.12 100% Total Outward 254.23 100%
Netherlands 158.42 24.9% Cayman Islands 72.58 28.5%
United States 109.61 17.3% British Virgin Islands 46.73 18.4%
Luxembourg 60.12 6.5% Bahamas 37.21 14.6%
Spain 57.98 9.1% Austria 32.14 12.6%
France 33.30 5.2% United States 14.92 5.9%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (billions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries 40.13 100% All Countries 31.11 100% All Countries 9.02 100%
United States 13.84 34.5% United States 10.37 33.3% United States 3.47 38.5%
Bahamas 6.80 16.9% Bahamas 6.76 21.7% Spain 2.64 29.3%
Cayman Islands 4.25 10.6% Cayman Islands 3.93 12.6% Korea, South 0.50 5.5%
Spain 3.72 9.3% Switzerland 2.01 6.5% Switzerland 0.41 4.5%
Switzerland 2.42 6.0% Luxembourg 1.69 5.4% Denmark 0.38 4.2%

 

Brunei

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Brunei’s state-owned enterprises (SOEs), managed by Darussalam Assets under the Ministry of Finance and Economy, lead key sectors of the economy including oil and gas, telecommunications, transport, and energy generation and distribution.  These enterprises also receive preferential treatment when responding to government tenders. Some of the largest SOE’s include the following:

The telecommunications industry is dominated by government-linked companies Telekom Brunei (TelBru), Data Stream Technologies (DST) Communications, and Progresif Cellular.  Telbru is the sole provider of fixed line telephone and internet services. DST, founded in 1995, and Progresif, which took over from failed telecom company B-Mobile in 2014 and is owned by a government investment fund, provides mobile phone and internet services.  In 2019, the government announced the consolidation of all telecommunications infrastructure in Brunei under a state-owned wholesale network operator called Unified National Networks (UNN).

Royal Brunei Technical Services (RBTS), established in 1988 as a government owned corporation, is responsible for managing the acquisition of a wide range of systems and equipment and maintaining those acquired systems and equipment.

Brunei National Petroleum (PB) is the national oil company owned by the Brunei government.  The company was granted all the mineral rights in eight prime onshore and offshore petroleum blocks, totaling 20,552 sq. km. Currently, the company manages contractors, including Shell, Total, and Petronas, which are exploring the onshore and deep water offshore blocks.

Royal Brunei Airlines started operations in 1974 and is the country’s national carrier.  The airline flies a combination of Boeing and Airbus aircraft.

Privatization Program

Brunei’s Ministry of Transportation and Info-Communication has made corporatization and privatization part of its Strategic Plan, which calls for the Ministry to shift its role from a service provider to a regulatory body with policy-setting responsibilities.  In that role, the Ministry will develop specific policies through corporatization and privatization; establish a regulatory framework and business facilitation. Currently, the Ministry is studying initiatives to privatize a number of state-owned agencies: the Postal Services Department and public transportation services.  These services are not yet completely privatized and there is no timeline for privatization, as the Ministry is still in the process of considering the initiative. Guidelines regarding the role of foreign investors and the bidding process are not yet available.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $13,600 2017 $13,500 World Bank data available at www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $-1 2017 $19 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) NA NA 2017 NA No public data available
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP NA NA 2017 50% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx    

* Host country data available at depd.gov.bn  


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Brunei’s Department of Economic Planning and Development and IMF Coordinated Direct Investment Survey data are not available.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Brunei’s Department of Economic Planning and Development and IMF Coordinated Portfolio Investment Survey data are not available.

Bulgaria

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Upon EU accession, Bulgaria was recognized as a market economy, in which the majority of the companies are private.  Significant state-owned enterprises (SOEs) remain, however, such as for railways and for the postal service. SOEs also predominate in the healthcare, infrastructure, and energy sectors; many of these are collectively managed by a common holding company (also an SOE).  Bulgaria’s roughly 220 SOEs account for about five percent of employment in the country, and their revenues amount to about 13.5 percent of the GDP. Some of the SOEs receive annual government subsidies for current and capital expenditures, regardless of their actual performance.  SOEs’ budgets and audit reports are posted on the Ministry of Finance website. The list of all SOEs can be found on: http://www.minfin.bg/bg/948   

The law treats equally public and private sector companies vis-à-vis bidding on concessions, taxation, or other government-controlled processes.  Bulgaria became party to the WTO’s Government Procurement Agreement (GPA) upon its entry into the EU in 2007.

Privatization Program

No major privatizations are currently planned.  All majority or minority state-owned properties are eligible for privatization, with the exception of those included in a specific list of public interest companies, including water management companies, state hospitals, and state sports facilities. State-owned military manufacturers can be privatized with Parliamentary approval.

Municipally-owned property can be privatized upon decision by a municipal council, or authorized body and upon publication of the municipal privatization list in the national gazette. Foreign companies may participate in privatization tenders. The 2010 Privatization and Post-Privatization Act created a single Privatization and Post-Privatization Agency http://www.priv.government.bg/   responsible for privatization oversight.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $58,221 2016 $53,241 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $848 2017 $848 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $29 N/A N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 91.5% 2016 79.4% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

* Source for Host Country Data: Bulgarian National Bank (BNB). For comparative purposes, data inside the table draws from the U.S./international source provided in the last column.


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

The official FDI data in 2018 is broadly consistent with the IMF dollar-adjusted data.  The data for the Netherlands are heavily influenced by investment by non-Dutch companies (particularly Russian) incorporated in the country.  Distortions such as this substantially overstate the actual role of some countries as sources of FDI and understate that of the United States.  A recent study, based on beneficial owner analysis, placed the United States as historically the sixth-largest source country for FDI in Bulgaria, significantly above its nominal ranking at #13.  According to the same analysis, the United States is historically the largest non-EU source of FDI in Bulgaria.

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $49,604 100% N/A N/A N/A
Netherlands $8,594 17.3% N/A N/A N/A
Austria $4,756 9.2% N/A N/A N/A
Germany $3,358 6.8% N/A N/A N/A
Italy $2,995 6.0% N/A N/A N/A
United Kingdom $2,730 5.5% N/A N/A N/A
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Bulgarian companies’ tendency to seek tax advantages by using offshore entities impacts the data below, particularly in the case of Luxembourg

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries $8,858 100% All Countries $2,247 100% All Countries $6,611 100%
United States $936 10.6% Luxembourg $679 30.2% Romania $865 13.1%
Luxembourg $887 10.0% United States $500 22.2% Hungary $479 7.2%
Romania $872 9.8% Germany $277 12.3% Poland $466 7.0%
Czech Rep $532 6.0% France $223 9.9% Czech Rep $459 6.9%
France $519 5.9% Ireland $164 7.3% United States $436 6.6%

Burkina Faso

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Private enterprises are allowed to compete with State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs) on the same terms and conditions.  The bidding process is considered to be open and fair. In practice, SOEs enjoy monopoly control of the segments in which they are active.

SOEs or “strategic companies” are present in several sectors such as public services (health, telecom), energy (hydrocarbon, electricity, water), media (television and press), and social security.

The primary SOEs are in the areas of: oil imports and distribution (SONABHY), water and sanitation (ONEA), lottery (LONAB), mailing services (SONAPOST), rail equipment (SOPAFER-B), electricity (SONABEL), and social security benefits (CNSS and CARFO).

Every year, all of the SOEs meet to report to the Prime Minister.  While this meeting is covered in the press and top-line revenue and profit figures are announced, detailed SOE budgets are in most cases not publicly available.  The government publishes the list of all SOEs with their basic financials.

Privatization Program

GoBF announcements for privatization bids are widely distributed, targeting both local and foreign investors.  Bids are published in local papers, international magazines, mailed to different diplomatic missions, e-mailed to interested foreign investors, and published on the Internet on sites such as http://www.dgmarket.com  .

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2016 $10,886 2017 $12,323 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A N/A N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A N/A N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 21.9% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $2,869 100% Total Outward $74 100%
Canada $878 30% Cote d’Ivoire $19 26%
Barbados $594 21% Mali $19 26%
United Kingdom $387 13% Togo $15 20%
France $238 8% Benin $7 9%
Bermuda $183 6% Senegal $7 9%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Burma

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Revenue from SOEs contributes about 42 percent of the total revenue of Burma, while SOEs costs amount to 36 percent of expenditures.  In July 2016, the NLD announced 12 economic policies including to reform SOEs and privatize SOEs to enable the private sector to create employment opportunities.  The disaggregate figures of each SOE under the respective ministries are made public in the Burmese language.

Starting in 2012, the government of Burma began taking steps to reduce SOEs’ reliance on government support and to make them more competitive through joint ventures.  This included reducing budget subsidies for financing the raw material requirements of SOEs. The government of Burma has moved in the direction of public private partnerships, corporatization, and privatization.  Burma is not party to the Government Procurement Agreement (GPA) within the framework of the WTO.

SOEs can secure loans at four percent interest rates from state-owned banks, with approval from the cabinet.  Private enterprises, unlike SOEs, are forced to provide land or other real estate as collateral in order to be considered for a loan.  However, SOEs are now subject to stricter financial discipline, as the government has sharply cut direct subsidies to the SOEs while opening markets for competition with the private sector.  Furthermore, the government is removing the easy credit from state banks. SOEs historically had an advantage over private entities in terms of land access since, according to the Constitution, the State owns all the land.

Privatization Program

According to the government of Burma, the private sector accounts for a majority of the country’s GDP, with the State participating in telecommunication services, social and public administration, energy, forestry, construction, and electricity.  The activities of the two military-owned conglomerates of MEHL and MEC are not included in the budget data; while a common sense understanding of “state-owned” would likely include them, these companies are not considered SOEs under Burmese law.

The NLD government has prioritized the privatization of SOEs, largely because many of these entities cost the government money.  In May 2016, the NLD appointed the new members of the Privatization Commission headed by a Vice-President. The Minister of Planning and Finance is the secretary of the commission.  Privatization can take the form of system-sharing, public-private partnership, private-private partnership, franchise, joint-venture, and sales of assets in line with international standards.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 N/A 2018 $74,002 https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2015&ey=2022&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&pr1.x=66&pr1.y=14&c=518&s=NGDPD&grp=0&a=  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2018 $55.9* N/A N/A N/A
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions)** N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP** N/A N/A 2017 38.4% https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx    

* https://www.dica.gov.mm/sites/dica.gov.mm/files/document-files/yearly_country.pdf  . In 2018, Burma changed its fiscal reporting period from an April to March reporting period to an October to September period.  This amount only represents U.S. FDI between April and September 2018
**Accurate statistical data is limited in Burma, although this capacity is also being developed.


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment (2017)* Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward Amount 100% N/A
China $8,734 33.1% N/A
Singapore $7,779 29.5% N/A
Thailand  $2,256 8.6% N/A
United Kingdom $1,915 7.3% N/A
Japan $1,167 4.4% N/A
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

* According to http://data.imf.org/CDIS  


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Burundi

7. State-Owned Enterprises

There are five SOEs in Burundi with 100 percent government ownership:  Regideso (public utility company), Onatel (telecom), Sosumo (sugar), OTB (tea), and Cogerco (cotton).  No statistics on assets are available for these companies as their reports are not available to the public.  Board members for SOEs are appointed by the GoB and report to its ministries. The GoB has a minority (40 percent) share in Brarudi, a branch of the Heineken Group, and in three banking companies.

There is no published list of SOEs.

SOEs have no market-based advantages and compete with other investors under the same terms and conditions; however, Burundi does not adhere to the OECD guidelines on corporate governance for SOEs.

Privatization Program

Burundi’s program for privatizing some SOEs in the agribusiness industry (coffee, tea, sugar) and telecommunications sector has been suspended since 2015 with no clear indication of when it may resume.

The privatization program was open to all potential buyers, including foreigners, and there was no explicit discrimination against foreign investors at any stage of the investment process.  Public bidding was mandatory. The process is transparent and non-discriminatory. When the government intends to sell a business or shares in a business, offers are published in local newspapers.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $3,015* 2017 $3,170 www.worldbank.org/en/country  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or international Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 N/A 2017 N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 N/A 2017 N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 7.7* 2017 7.1 UNCTAD data available at

https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

* BRB (Bank of the Republic of Burundi), 2017 Annual Report (at official exchange rate).

Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

No detailed information is available on the IMF’s Coordinated Portfolio Investment Survey (CPIS) website and no information is available on outward direct investment from Burundi.

Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

No detailed information is available on the IMF’s Coordinated Portfolio Investment Survey (CPIS) website and no information is available on outward direct investment from Burundi.

Cabo Verde

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Starting in the mid-1990s, Cabo Verde implemented a series of reforms that have transformed a centrally-planned economy into a market-oriented economy.  The number of major state-owned enterprises (SOEs) to be privatized and where the state owns the majority of the capital has decreased from forty in the 1990s to five today (ENAPOR, ASA, EMPROFAC, ELECTRA, and CABENAVE).

Government interference in state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in Cabo Verde is relatively minor. With the exception of certain industries which remain protected (e.g., freight handling at the airport, port authority, importation of pharmaceutical products, and distribution of electricity), private and state-owned enterprises compete freely and without major government interference. In these liberalized markets, both private and state-owned enterprises have the same access to credit, markets, and business opportunities.  SOEs in Cabo Verde are most active in the transportation sector. SOEs are generally managed by a board of directors which is nominated by the Minister in charge of the respective sector. These boards of directors have anywhere from three to five members. Overall, there is little government interference in the day-to-day management of SOEs, and they are generally evaluated based on their economic or financial performance. All SOEs are required to produce annual reports and must submit their books to independent auditors.  Allegations about the qualifications of the CEOs of SOEs abound; many purport to believe that the importance of political connections outweighs the importance of technical qualifications in leadership of these behemoths. Even though not all directors are politically appointed, they must maintain the confidence and support of the government.

Cabo Verde is not party to the Government Procurement Agreement (GPA) within the framework of the World Trade Organization (WTO).  It tries to adhere to the OECD’s guidelines on Corporate Governance. In general, there is fair competition between SOEs and private sector enterprises, except in the transportation and utilities sectors.

Privatization Program

Privatization comes either through private sector sales or through liquidation. Cabo Verde Airlines, two main utility companies, Electra (electricity and water), Cabo Verde Telecom, three banks, and the main state-owned entities in the tourism sector have all been sold off. All privatization or liquidation processes ran smoothly with the exception of Electra, which reverted to government ownership. The decision to repossess Electra resulted from a breach of contract with the Portuguese investor. Consensual agreement was reached during the negotiations.

The government sold its shares of fuel company Empresa Nacional de Combustíveis (ENACOL) and local bank Banco Comercial do Atlântico (BCA) via the stock exchange. The long-struggling national airline, Cabo Verde Airlines, has been finally privatized after years of bloated payrolls, non-performance, and growing costs to the government.

On March 1, Cabo Verde and Icelandair signed a deal transferring 51 percent ownership of Cabo Verde Airlines (CVA, formerly known as TACV) to Loftleidir Cabo Verde (LCV).  The state will progressively divest itself of its holdings in the company: 10 percent of its equity will be made available to former CVA employees and the diaspora community (with a 15 percent discount rate), and the remaining 39 percent of the shares will be made available to national and international investors in 2019.  Per the terms of the contract, LCV will not be able to sell its shares for a five-year period without prior government consent. After five years, the government will retain pre-emption rights.

Also on hold are the privatizations of the management of the national Port and Airport authorities (ENAPOR and ASA respectively), and the pharmaceutical company EMPROFAC.  The conclusion of the privatization processes of the management of ASA and ENAPOR are expected by the end of 2019.

This privatization agenda is aligned with the current’s government strategic development plan (PEDS 2017 – 2021), looking at privatizations and concessions as tools to bring new dynamics to the economy, through new business and investment opportunities to national and international private sector.  The government hopes to align its progress on the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals to private sector-driven investment rather than international aid or cooperation. It has selected seven big sectors – transportation, tourism, the blue economy, ICT, agriculture, logistics, and energy – as the major drivers.  As the bid for private sector investment advances, the government hopes these key sectors will be see reduced fiscal and budgetary risks and improved performance; it should also diminish the role of certain SOEs and the presence of the government in the economy.

Both foreign and national investors can participate in the public bidding process, which is transparent and non-discriminatory.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $1 771 2017 $1 773 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions)  
    N/A
N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions)      N/A N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP       N/A N/A UNCTAD data available at

https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

* Source for Host Country Data:  Cabo Verde’s National Institute of Statistic (INE).


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data (2017)
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward 83.4 100% No data available
United Kingdom 49.3 59.1%
Spain   5.3   6.4%
Portugal   3.6 4.3%
Italy   1.1 1.3%
Ireland   0.1 0.1%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

Source:  Cabo Verde’s National Institute of Statistic (INE).   – 2017 Data (estimates)


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Cambodia

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Cambodia currently has 15 state-owned enterprises (SOEs). Cambodian SOEs include Electricite du Cambodge, Sihanoukville Autonomous Port, Telecom Cambodia, Cambodia Shipping Agency, Cambodia Postal Services, Rural Development Bank, Green Trade Company, Printing House, Siem Reap Water Supply Authority, Construction and Public Work Lab, Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority, Phnom Penh Autonomous Port, Kampcheary Insurance, Cambodia Life Insurance, Cambodia Securities Exchange.

In accordance with the Law on General Stature of Public Enterprises, there are two types of commercial SOEs in Cambodia. One type is that the state company’s capital is 100 percent owned by the Government, and another type is a joint-venture in which a majority of capital is owned by the state and a minority by private investors.

Each SOE is under the supervision of a line ministry or government institution and is overseen by a board of directors drawn from among senior government officials. Private enterprises are generally allowed to compete with state-owned enterprises under equal terms and conditions. These entities are also subject to the same taxes and value-added tax rebate policies as private-sector enterprises. SOEs are covered under the law on public procurement, which was promulgated in January 2012, and their financial reports are audited by the appropriate line ministry, the Ministry of Economy and Finance, and the National Audit Authority.

Privatization Program

There are no ongoing privatization programs, nor has the government announced any plans to privatize existing SOEs.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

There has been a surge in FDI inflows to Cambodia in recent years. Though FDI goes primarily to infrastructure, including commercial and residential real estate projects, it has also recently favored investments in manufacturing and agro-processing. Cambodia reports its total stock of FDI reached USD 7.1 billion in 2018, up from USD 6.8 billion in 2017.

Investment into Cambodia is dominated by China, and the level of investment from China has surged especially in the last five years. Cambodia reports that its FDI from China reached USD 1.6 billion (year-end 2018), while fixed asset investment from China reached USD 15.3 billion. Taiwan and Hong Kong are also major sources of investment in Cambodia, accounting for USD 614 million and USD 376 million of FDI, respectively, through 2018.

Cambodian investments into other countries are still quite small. Through 2017, the IMF reports a total of USD 367 million of Cambodian investments, with most going to China and Singapore.

NOTE: Discrepancies exists between IMF counterpart country data and the investment figures reported by Cambodia’s official source, the Council for the Development of Cambodia (CDC). In some cases, counterpart country data reports much larger FDI stocks in Cambodia than reported by CDC. In other cases, the data from the Cambodia government is the only source available. Many of Cambodia’s key FDI partners (notably China, Taiwan and Hong Kong) do not report FDI figures to the IMF.

There are also discrepancies in the reported total stock of U.S. FDI in Cambodia. For FDI through 2017, the U.S. government (BEA) reports USD 151 million, the IMF reports USD 110 million, and Cambodia reports only USD 100 million.

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 $24,400 2017 $22,158 https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=KH  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $100 2017 $151 https://apps.bea.gov/international/factsheet/factsheet.cfm?Area=607  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $5 https://apps.bea.gov/international/factsheet/factsheet.cfm?Area=607   
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2018 29% 2017 99.2% https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx   

* Source for Host Country Data: The Council for the Development of Cambodia (CDC) provides official government data on investment in Cambodia, but not all data is published online. See:  www.cambodiainvestment.gov.kh/why-invest-in-cambodia/investment-environment/investment-trend.html 


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data (Through 2017)
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment  Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $6,254 100% Total Outward $367 100%
Netherlands $1,487 23.8% China $189 51.5%
Korea, Republic of $1,479 23.6% Singapore $160 43.6%
Thailand $1,186 19.0% Philippines $21 5.7%
Malaysia $1,085 17.3% Myanmar $10 2.7%
France $428   6.8% India $6 1.6%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

Data retrieved from IMF’s Coordinated Direct Investment Survey database (mirror data, as reported by counterpart economies) presents a much different picture of FDI into Cambodia as compared to that provided by the Cambodian government. For example, Cambodia reports USD 6.8 billion total FDI through year-end 2017 (USD 7.1 through year-end 2018), while the IMF reports only USD 2.8 billion.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

N/A – IMF CPIS Data for Cambodia is not available.

Cameroon

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Roughly 70 percent of Cameroon’s 130 SOEs are profit-oriented, though most are a net negative to government finances.  Some provide public services.  Many SOEs are so dominant in their markets that they act as de facto regulators, specifically in telecommunications and media.  The Government of Cameroon has over 130 state-owned companies in which it has majority ownership, and which operate in key sectors of the economy including agribusiness, energy, and mining.  SOEs are also present in real estate, transportation, services, information & communication, finance and travel.

In 2017, the Parliament voted into law a new regulation to govern SOEs.  The government says that the objective of this reform is to improve the services offered and the competitiveness of public companies, in line with the development objectives of the country.  Some of the innovations of this law include the diversification of the investment universe of SOEs, modern control through reporting requirements, and compliance with modern governance principles.  As of 2019, it does not appear that any of these objectives have been completed.

The Embassy is not aware of any published list of SOEs.

SOEs competing in the domestic market receive non-market based advantages from the host government.  They receive taxpayer subsidies and in many markets serve as de facto regulators.  They also have a history of accumulating unpaid tax arrears while at the same time benefitting from preferential access to land and to public funds through State subventions.

The Chambers of the Supreme Auditor of Cameroon indicates in its yearly reports that SOEs are not financially transparent.  Only about 22 percent of these structures publish financial accounts.  Media reports have highlighted corruption cases involving managers of SOEs and unveiled inefficiencies, severe dysfunctions, and opacity of the management of SOEs.  These problems are exacerbated by the fact that over the past years, the government has not imposed any performance targets, productivity requirements, quality of service standards, or any significant budget constraints on SOEs.  The governing boards and senior executive teams are political appointees and connected individuals, and thus have the means to avoid tax burdens levied on private enterprises, receive specialized consideration for subsidies and enhanced operating budgets, and obtain generally preferential treatment from the government (including courts).

Privatization Program

Cameroon enacted major privatization policies in the 1990s and early 2000 under the purview of international donors such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank.  The process has been stalled for over a decade, but market pressures continue to mount for additional privatization efforts.  We estimate that 30 companies have undergone some form of privatization since 2004, though the government has stakes in at least 100 more companies.  The government has openly discussed privatization of the national airline, the telecommunications company, the oil sector, and agribusinesses, but little has occurred.

In general, privatization appears to be on hold.  The government favors Public Private Partnership (PPP) or some variations of outsourcing and contractual management, with the State retaining some ownership of assets or of the business rather than outright privatization.  In some cases, the State prefers to participate in joint ventures, such as with mining companies, rather than creating a state-owned company.

Foreign investors can participate in privatization programs.  According to some analysts, of the 30 State-owned companies privatized before 2004, foreign bidders won the majority (22).

The public bidding on tender offers is transparent.  They are advertised in the media, but the actual process of awarding contracts may still be tainted by corruption, particularly for large projects.  The listing of public tenders in the Cameroon Tribune newspaper and publication of which firms received the contract do not guarantee a fully transparent process of awards.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

 

Host Country Statistical Source

USG or International Statistical Source

USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other

 

Economic Data

Year

Amount

Year

Amount

Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD)

2016

$30,400

2017

$34,923

www.worldbank.org/en/country 

Foreign Direct Investment

Host Country Statistical Source

USG or International Statistical Source

USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other

U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions)

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  

Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions)

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  

Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx 


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Cameroon is not included in the IMF’s Coordinated Direct Investment Survey.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Cameroon is not included in the IMF’s Coordinated Portfolio Investment Survey, as the nascent Douala Stock exchange has minimal opportunities for outside portfolio investment.

Canada

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Canada has more than 40 state-owned enterprises (SOEs) at the federal level, with the majority of assets held by three federal crown corporations: Export Development Canada, Farm Credit Canada, and Business Development Bank of Canada. Canada also has over 100 SOEs at the provincial level that contribute to a variety of sectors including finance; power, electricity and utilities; and transportation. The Treasury Board Secretariat provides an annual report to Parliament regarding the governance and performance of Canada’s federal crown corporations and other corporate interests.

The Canadian government lists SOEs as “Government Business Enterprises” (GBE). A list is available at http://www.osfi-bsif.gc.ca/Eng/fi-if/rtn-rlv/fr-rf/dti-id/Pages/GBE.aspx   and includes both federal and provincial enterprises.

There are no restrictions on the ability of private enterprises to compete with SOEs. The functions of most Canadian crown corporations have limited appeal to the private sector. The activities of some SOEs such as VIA Rail and Canada Post do overlap with private enterprise. As such, they are subject to the rules of the Competition Act to prevent abuse of dominance and other anti-competitive practices. Foreign investors are also able to challenge SOEs under the NAFTA and WTO.

Privatization Program

Federal and provincial privatizations are considered on a case-by-case basis, and there are no overall limitations with regard to foreign ownership. As an example, the federal Ministry of Transport did not impose any limitations in the 1995 privatization of Canadian National Railway, whose majority shareholders are now U.S. persons.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $1,583,000 2017 $1,653,000 www.worldbank.org/en/country  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in Partner Country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $299,609 2017 $391,208 BEA data available at http://bea.gov/international/direct_investment_multinational_companies_comprehensive_data.htm  
Host Country’s FDI in the U.S. ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $373,904 2017 $523,761 BEA data available at http://bea.gov/international/direct_investment_multinational_companies_comprehensive_data.htm  
Total Inbound Stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 39% 2017 40% N/A

*Host Country Source, Office of the Chief Economist, 2017 FDI Stats, Global Affairs Canada.

Note: Data converted to U.S. dollars using yearly average currency conversions from IRS


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment from/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $610,396 100% Total Outward $830,445 100%
U.S. $299,609 49% U.S. $373,904 45%
Netherlands $68,061 11% U.K. $76,018 9%
Luxembourg $36,965 6% Luxembourg $56,986 7%
U.K. $35,134 6% Barbados $36,257 4%
Switzerland $29,787 5% Cayman Islands $31,922 4%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries $1,513,140 100% All Countries $1,204,811 100% All Countries $308,328 100%
U.S. $927,094 61% U.S. $715,534 59% U.S. $211,560 69%
U.K. $82,202 5% U.K. $67,976 6% U.K. $15,061 5%
Japan $69,822 5% Japan $57,038 5% Germany $7,786 3%
France $42,700 3% France $31,574 3% France $7,028 2%
Germany $36,807 2% Germany $29,806 2% Japan $4,992 2%

Chad

7. State-Owned Enterprises

All Chadian SOEs operate under the umbrella of government ministries.  SOE senior management reports to the minister responsible for the relevant sector, as well as a board of directors and an executive board.  The President of the Republic appoints SOE boards of directors, executive boards, and CEOs. The boards of directors give general directives over the year, while the executive boards manage general guidelines set by the boards of directors.  Some executive directors consult with their respective ministries before making business decisions.

The GOC operates SOEs in a number of sectors, including Energy and Mining; Agriculture, Construction, Building and Heavy Equipment, Information and Communication, in water supply and cement production.  The percentage SOEs allocate to research and development (R&D) is unknown.

There were no reports of discriminatory action taken by SOEs against the interests of foreign investors in 2018, and some foreign companies operated in direct competition with SOEs.  Chad’s Public Tender Code (PTC) provides preferential treatment for domestic competitors, including SOEs. 

SOEs are not subject to the same tax burden and tax rebate policies as their private sector competitors, and are often afforded material advantages such as preferential access to land and raw materials.  SOEs receive government subsidies under the national budget; however, in practice they do not respect the budget. State and company funds are often commingled. 

Chad is not a party to the Agreement on Government Procurement within the framework of the WTO.  Chadian practices are not consistent with the OECD Guidelines on Corporate Governance for SOEs. 

The GOC privatized two SOEs  in 2018, but wishes to remain a major player in extractive industries.

Privatization Program

Foreign investors are permitted and encouraged to participate in the privatization process.  There is a public, non-discriminatory bidding process. Having a local contact in Chad to assist with the bidding process is important.  To combat corruption, the GOC has recently hired private international companies to oversee the bidding process for government tenders. Despite the GOC’s willingness to privatize loss-making SOEs, there remain several obstacles to privatization. 

 The Chamber of Commerce submitted a ‘white paper’ (livre blanc) in fall 2018 with recommendations for the Government to facilitate and simplify private sector operations, including establishing a Business Observatory and a Presidential Council, which would implement the over 70 recommendations to improve the investment climate in Chad.

In April 2018, the GoC sold 60% of its stake in the cotton producer CotonTchad Societe Nouvelle (CotonTchad SN) to the Singaporean Olam International.

In October 2018 the GoC launched a new airline, Tchadia airlines, a joint venture owned 51 percent by the GoC and 49 percent by Ethiopian Airlines.

Chad is considering privatization in the following sectors:

  • Information & Communication (SOTEL Tchad)
  • Food Processing & Packaging (juice, meat processing)

The GOC has not published a timeline for these privatizations.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) N/A N/A 2017 $9,871  www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or international Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A N/A N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A N/A N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 47.75% UNCTAD data available at

https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx    


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Data not available.

 

Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Chile

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Chile had 28 state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in operation as of 2017.  They are all commercial companies. Twenty-five SOEs are not listed on any stock exchange and are fully owned by the government. The remaining three are majority government owned.  Ten Chilean SOEs operate in the port management sector; seven in the services sector, three in the defense sector, three in the mining sector (including CODELCO, the world’s largest copper producer); two in transportation; one in the water sector; one TV station; one is an oil and gas company –ENAP-; and one state-owned bank (Banco Estado).  The state also holds a minority stake in four water companies as a result of a privatization process. Total assets of SOEs amounted to USD 73.7 billion in 2017. Total net income of SOEs in 2017 was USD 2.2 billion. SOEs employed 51,564 people in 2017.

Twenty SOEs in Chile fall under the supervision of the Public Enterprises System (SEP), a state holding in charge of overseeing SOE governance, as well as exercising minority rights in four water companies.  The rest – including CODELCO, ENAP and Banco Estado – have their own supervisory structures outside of SEP jurisdiction, but report to government ministries. All 28 SOEs are accountable to Congress, the President and the General Comptroller Office.  Allocation of seats on the boards of Chilean SOEs is determined by the SEP, as described above, or outlined by the laws that regulate them. In CODELCO’s corporate governance, there is a mix between seats appointed by recommendation from an independent high-level civil service committee, and seats allocated by political authorities in the government.

A list of SOEs made by the Budget Directorate, including their financial management information, is available at the following link:  http://www.dipres.gob.cl/599/w3-propertyvalue-20890.html .

In general, Chilean SOEs work under hard budget constraints and compete under the same regulatory and tax frameworks than private firms.  For instance, CODELCO and Banco Estado compete with many private copper mines and private banks, respectively. However, there are specific areas where SOEs enjoy special advantages.  For example, ENAP is the only company allowed to refine oil in Chile. As an OECD member, Chile adheres to the OECD Guidelines on Corporate Governance for SOEs.

Privatization Program

Chile does not have a privatization program in place at this time.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (USD million) 2017 $281,452 2017 $277,076 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country (USD million, stock positions) 2017 $32,266 2017 $25,884 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States (USD million, stock positions) 2017 $10,334 2017 $2,097 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 100.3% 2017 109.6% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

* Source for Host Country Data: Central Bank of Chile.


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

According to the IMF’s Coordinated Direct Investment Survey (CDIS), total stock of FDI in Chile in 2017 amounted to USD 274.7 billion, compared to USD 248.6 billion in 2016.  The United States remains the main source of FDI to Chile with USD 31.7 billion, representing 12 percent of the total. The following top sources (Canada, Spain and the Netherlands) accounted for 25 percent of Chile’s inward FDI stock.  Cayman Islands, a tax haven, is Chile’s fifth source of FDI. Chile’s outward direct investment stock in 2017 remains concentrated in South America, where Brazil, Peru and Argentina together represented 31 percent of total Chilean outward FDI.  The United States accounted for 9 percent of the total.

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward 274,653 100% Total Outward $123,643 100%
United States 31,750 12% Brazil $18,234 15%
Canada 26,647 10% Panama $15,232 12%
Spain  22,170 8% Peru $11,122 9%
Netherlands  17,899 7% United States $9,818 8%
Cayman Islands 9,179  4% Argentina $9,142 7%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

According to the IMF’s Coordinated Portfolio Investment Survey (CPIS), total stock of portfolio investment in Chile as of June 2018 amounted to USD 180.6 billion, of which USD 139 billion were equity and investment funds shares, and the rest were debt securities. The United States are the main source of portfolio investment to Chile with USD 55.6 billion, representing 31 percent of the total.  The following top source is Luxembourg (a tax haven), which is also the main source of equity investment, with 40 percent of the total. Ireland, the United Kingdom and Germany are the following top sources of total portfolio investment to Chile, while Mexico and Japan are among the top five sources of debt securities investment.

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries $180,621 100% All Countries $138,958 100% All Countries $41,663 100%
United States $55,613 31% Luxembourg $55,007 40% United States $15,571 37%
Luxembourg $55,214 31% United States $40,042 29% Mexico $5,450 13%
Ireland $11,459 6% Ireland $11,412 8% Japan $4,239 10%
United Kingdom $6,743 4% United Kingdom $5,120 4% Germany $2,192 5%
Germany $6,556 4% Germany $4,364 3% United Kingdom $1,623 4%

China

7. State-Owned Enterprises

China has approximately 150,000 SOEs which are wholly owned by the state.  Around 50,000 (33 percent) are owned by the central government and the remainder by local governments.  The central government directly controls and manages 96 strategic SOEs through the State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission (SASAC), of which around 60 are listed on stock exchanges domestically and/or internationally.  SOEs, both central and local, account for 30 to 40 percent of total GDP and about 20 percent of China’s total employment.  SOEs can be found in all sectors of the economy, from tourism to heavy industries.

SASAC regulated SOEs: http://www.sasac.gov.cn/n2588035/n2641579/n2641645/c4451749/content.html  .

China’s leading SOEs benefit from preferential government policies aimed at developing bigger and stronger “national champions.”  SOEs enjoy favored access to essential economic inputs (land, hydrocarbons, finance, telecoms, and electricity) and exercise considerable power in markets like steel and minerals.  SOEs have long enjoyed preferential access to credit and the ability to issue publicly traded equity and debt.

During the November 2013 Third Plenum of the 18th Party Congress – a hallmark session that announced economic reforms, including calling for the market to play a more decisive role in the allocation of resources – President Xi Jinping called for broad SOE reforms.  Cautioning that SOEs still will remain a key part of China’s economic system, Xi emphasized improved SOE operational transparency and legal reforms that would subject SOEs to greater competition by opening up more industry sectors to domestic and foreign competitors and by reducing provincial and central government preferential treatment of SOEs.  The Third Plenum also called for “mixed ownership” economic structures, providing greater economic balance between private and state-owned businesses in certain industries, including equal access to factors of production, competition on a level playing field, and equal legal protection.

At the 2018 Central Economic Work Conference, Chinese leaders said in 2019 they will promote a greater role for the market, as well as renewed efforts on reforming SOEs – to include mixed ownership reform.  In delivering the 2019 Government Work Report, Premier Li Keqiang pledged to improve corporate governance, including allowing SOE company boards, rather than SASAC, to appoint senior leadership. 

OECD Guidelines on Corporate Governance

SASAC participates in the OECD Working Party on State Ownership and Privatization Practices (WPSOPP).  Chinese officials have indicated China intends to utilize OECD SOE guidelines to improve the professionalism and independence of SOEs, including relying on Boards of Directors that are independent from political influence.  However, despite China’s Third Plenum commitments in 2013 (i.e., to foster “market-oriented” reforms in China’s state sectors), Chinese officials and SASAC have made minimal progress in fundamentally changing the regulation and business conduct of SOEs.  China has also committed to implement the G-20/OECD Principles of Corporate Governance, which apply to all publicly-listed companies, including listed SOEs.

Chinese law lacks unified guidelines or a governance code for SOEs, especially among provincial or locally-controlled SOEs.  Among central SOEs managed by SASAC, senior management positions are mainly filled by senior CCP members who report directly to the CCP, and double as the company’s Party secretary

The lack of management independence and the controlling ownership interest of the State make SOEs de facto arms of the government, subject to government direction and interference.  SOEs are rarely the defendant in legal disputes, and when they are, they almost always prevail, presumably due to the close relationship with the CCP.  U.S. companies often complain about the lack of transparency and objectivity in commercial disputes with SOEs.  In addition, SOEs enjoy preferential access to a disproportionate share of available capital, whether in the form of loans or equity.

In its September 2015 Guiding Opinions on Deepening the Reform of State-Owned Enterprises, the State Council instituted a system for classifying SOEs as “public service” or “commercial enterprises.”  Some commercial enterprise SOEs were further sub-classified into “strategic” or “critically important” sectors (i.e., with strong national economic or security importance).  SASAC has said the new classification system would allow the government to reduce support for commercial enterprises competing with private firms and instead channel resources toward public service SOEs.

Other recent reforms have included salary caps, limits on employee benefits, and attempts to create stock incentive programs for managers that have produced mixed results.  However, analysts believe minor reforms will be ineffective as long as SOE administration and government policy are intertwined.

A major stumbling block to SOE reform is that SOE regulators are outranked in the CCP party structure by SOE executives, which minimizes SASAC and other government regulators’ effectiveness at implementing reforms.  In addition, SOE executives are often promoted to high-ranking positions in the CCP or local government, further complicating the work of regulators.

During the Third Plenum of the CCP’s 18th Central Committee, in 2013, the CCP leadership announced that the market would play a “decisive role” in economic decision making and emphasized that SOEs needed to focus resources in areas that “serve state strategic objectives.”  However, experts point out that despite these new SOE distinctions, SOEs continue to hold dominant shares in their respective industries, regardless of whether they are strategic, which may further restrain private investment in the economy.  Moreover, the application of China’s Anti-Monopoly Law, together with other industrial policies and practices that are selectively enforced by the authorities, protects SOEs from private sector competition.

China is not a party to the Government Procurement Agreement (GPA) within the framework of the WTO, although Hong Kong is listed.  During China’s WTO accession negotiations, Beijing signaled its intention to join GPA.  And, in April 2018, President Xi announced his intent to join GPA, but no timeline has been given for accession.

Investment Restrictions in “Vital Industries and Key Fields”

The intended purpose of China’s State Assets Law is to safeguard and protect China’s economic system, promoting “socialist market economy” principles that fortify and develop a strong, state-owned economy.  A key component of the State Assets Law is enabling SOEs to play the leading role in China’s economic development, especially in “vital industries and key fields.”  To accomplish this, the law encourages Chinese regulators to adopt policies that consolidate SOE concentrations to ensure dominance in industries deemed vital to “national security” and “national economic security.” This principle is further reinforced by the December 2006 State Council announcement of the Guiding Opinions Concerning the Advancement of Adjustments of State Capital and the Restructuring of State-Owned Enterprises, which called for more SOE consolidation to advance the development of the state-owned economy, including enhancing and expanding the role of the State in controlling and influencing “vital industries and key fields relating to national security and national economic lifelines.”  These guidelines defined “vital industries and key fields” as “industries concerning national security, major infrastructure and important mineral resources, industries that provide essential public goods and services, and key enterprises in pillar industries and high-tech industries.”

Around the time the guidelines were published, the SASAC Chairman also listed industries where the State should maintain “absolute control” (e.g., aviation, coal, defense, electric power and the state grid, oil and petrochemicals, shipping, and telecommunications) and “relative control” (e.g., automotive, chemical, construction, exploration and design, electronic information, equipment manufacturing, iron and steel, nonferrous metal, and science and technology).  China has said these lists do not reflect its official policy on SOEs.  In fact, in some cases, regulators have allowed for more than 50 percent private ownership in some of the listed industries on a case-by-case basis, especially in industries where Chinese firms lack expertise and capabilities in a given technology Chinese officials deemed important at the time.

Parts of the agricultural sector have traditionally been dominated by SOEs.  Current agriculture trade rules, regulations, and limitations placed on foreign investment severely restrict the contributions of U.S. agricultural companies, depriving China’s consumers of the many potential benefits additional foreign investment could provide.  These investment restrictions in the agricultural sectors are at odds with China’s objective of shifting more resources to agriculture and food production in order to improve Chinese lives, food security, and food safety.

Privatization Program

At the November 2013 Third Plenum, the Chinese government announced reforms to SOEs that included selling shares of SOEs to outside investors.  This approach is an effort to improve SOE management structures, emphasize the use of financial benchmarks, and gradually take steps that will bring private capital into some sectors traditionally monopolized by SOEs like energy, telecommunications, and finance.  In practice, these reforms have been gradual, as the Chinese government has struggled to implement its SOE reform vision and often opted to utilize a preferred SOE consolidation approach. In the past few years, the Chinese government has listed several large SOEs and their assets on the Hong Kong stock exchange, subjecting SOEs to greater transparency requirements and heightened regulatory scrutiny.  This approach is a possible mechanism to improve SOE corporate governance and transparency. Starting in 2017, the government began pushing the mixed ownership model, in which private companies invest in SOEs and outside managers are hired, as a possible solution, although analysts note that ultimately the government (and therefore the CCP) remains in full control regardless of the private share percentage.  Over the last year, President Xi and other senior leaders have increasingly focused reform efforts on strengthening the role of the State as an investor or owner of capital, instead of the old SOE model in which the state was more directly involved in managing operations.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S.  FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 (*) $13,239,840 2017 $12,238,000 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S.  FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 (**) $82,500 2017 $107,556 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 (**) $67,400 2017 $39,518 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 (**) %16.4 2017 12.6% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

*China’s National Bureau of Statistics (90.031 trillion RMB converted at 6.8 RMB/USD estimate)
** Statistics gathered from China’s Ministry of Commerce official data


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment from/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $2,688,470 100% Total Outward N/A 100%
China, PR: Hong Kong $1,242,441 46.21% N/A N/A N/A
Brit Virgin Islands $285,932 10.64% N/A N/A N/A
Japan $164,765 6.13% N/A N/A N/A
Singapore $107,636 4.00% N/A N/A N/A
Germany $86,945 3.23% N/A N/A N/A
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

Source: IMF Coordinated Direct Investment Survey (CDIS)


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Colombia

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Since 2015, the Government of Colombia has concentrated its industrial and commercial enterprises under the supervision of the Ministry of Finance.  By the end of 2018, the number of state-owned companies reached 109, with a combined value of USD 23 billion. The 109 companies under government ownership fall under the following sectors: agricultural, energy, financial, hydrocarbons, health, telecommunications, transport, and tourism.  The government is the majority shareholder of 39 companies and a minority shareholder in the remaining 70. Among the most notable companies with a government stake are Ecopetrol (Colombia’s majority state-owned and privately-run oil company), ISA, Banco Agrario de Colombia, Bancoldex, and La Previsora.  The asset value of the majority state-owned companies stands at USD 84 billion. SOEs competing in the Colombian market do not receive non-market based advantages from the government. The Ministry of Finance updates their annual report on SOEs every June.

Privatization Program

Colombia has privatized state-owned enterprises under article 60 of the Constitution and Law Number 226 of 1995.  This law stipulates that the sale of government holdings in an enterprise should be offered to two groups: first to cooperatives and workers’ associations of the enterprise, then to the general public.  During the first phase, special terms and credits have to be granted, and in the second phase, foreign investors may participate along with the general public. Colombia’s main privatizations have been in the electricity, mining, hydrocarbons, and financial sectors, and in January 2016, the government sold its majority stake in Isagen, the country’s third-largest energy generator, to Canadian firm Brookfield Asset Management for USD 2 billion.  The government views stimulating private-sector investment in roads, ports, electricity, and gas infrastructure as a high priority. The government is increasingly turning to concessions and utilizing public-private partnerships (PPPs) as a means for securing and incentivizing infrastructure development.

The Colombian government prioritized a fourth-generation infrastructure program (4G) focused on highway construction with PPP opportunities valued at USD 17 billion.  In order to attract investment and promote PPPs, on November 22, 2013, the Colombian government signed a new infrastructure law clarifying provisions for frequently-cited obstacles to participate in PPPs, including environmental licensing, land acquisition, and the displacement of public utilities.  The law puts in place a civil procedure that facilitates land expropriation during court cases, allows for expedited environmental licensing, and clarifies that the cost to move or replace public utilities affected by infrastructure projects falls to private companies. Foreign investment has played a substantial role in the 4G program, and the program, with the exception of the Odebrecht scandal mentioned below, has thus far been praised for its transparency and competitiveness.

Municipal enterprises operate many public utilities and infrastructure services.  These municipal enterprises have engaged private sector investment through concessions.  There are several successful concessions involving roads. These kinds of partnerships have helped promote reforms and create a more attractive environment for private, national, and foreign investment.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) N/A N/A 2018 $336.940   https://www.imf.org   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2018 $2.482 2017 -$66 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2018 $516 N/A N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2018 3.3% 2017 18.8% UNCTAD data available at

https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

*Data from the Colombian Statistics Departments, DANE, (https://www.dane.gov.co/  )  and the Colombian central bank (http://www.banrep.gov.co  ).


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI – 2018

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data 2018
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions) 2018
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward 11,010 100% Total Outward 5,121 100%
United States 2,482.6 23% Mexico 880.5 17%
Spain 1,445.2 13% Holland 681.0 13%
England 1,351.7 12% Panama 557.1 11%
Panama 1,149.4 10% United States 516.7 10%
Switzerland 891.6 8% Chile 457.4 9%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

Data from the Colombian central bank (http://www.banrep.gov.co).


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars) (June 2017)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries 38,963 100% All Countries 24,228 100% All Countries 14,735 100%
United States 25,654 66% United States 17,699 73% United States 7,955 54%
Luxembourg 4,649 12% Luxembourg 4,573 19% Mexico 1,025 7%
Mexico 1,040 3% Ireland 650 3% International Organizations 994 7%
International Organizations 1,006 3% United Kingdom 302 1% Canada 715 5%
Canada 783 2% Cayman Islands 237 1% France 711 5%

Data from IMF’s Coordinated Direct Investment Survey. Source: http://data.imf.org/?sk=B981B4E3-4E58-467E-9B90-9DE0C3367363&sId=1481568994271  

Congo, Democratic Republic of the

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Some report the DRC state-owned enterprises (SOEs) can generally act as a burden on the nation’s economy. Investors have noted that SOEs stifle competition and are unable to provide reliable electricity, transportation, and other important services over which they have monopolies.  Some SOEs and other Congolese parastatal organizations are in a poor financial and operational state due primarily to indebtedness, mismanagement of resources and employees, and poor service delivery.

Reporting on the assets of SOEs and other parastatal enterprises is limited, making valuation difficult.  According to State law N° 08/007 of July 7, 2008 (related to business transformation), any firm of which the state owns 50 percent plus one share is considered to be an SOE.  DRC law does not grant SOEs advantage over private companies in bidding for government contracts, however, in practice, SOEs are accused of being favored over private companies, sometimes using questionable practices and arguably unsupportable legal actions.  The list of SOEs can be found at: http://www.leganet.cd/Legislation/Droit percent20Public/EPub/d.09.12.24.04.09.htm .

SOE accounts are not audited.  While the Supreme Audit Institution (Cour des Comptes) is authorized to audit SOEs and to publish findings, a lack of resources devoted to the organization has resulted in no or partial SOE audits.  In addition, the Conseil Superieur du Portefeuille – an oversight body under the Ministry of Portfolio – is mandated with assessing SOE financial performance in terms of growth, profitability, and solvency.  Their reports are for internal use and are not publicly available.

There is no official provision requiring preferential access to land and raw materials for SOEs; in a situation where both an SOE and private enterprise show interest in the same land or material, preferential access shall be granted to the first applicant.

The DRC is not a party to the WTO’s procurement agreement (GPA) but nominally adheres to the OECD guidelines on Corporate Governance for SOEs.  The DRC is a Participating Country in the Southern Africa SOE network, with the Ministry of Portfolio and the Steering Committee for SOE reforms designated as Regularly Participating Institutions.

According to some, in addition to being inadequately managed, some SOEs also serve as conduits for the illicit diversion of funds. U.S. NGO the Carter Center issued the November 2017 study, “A State Affair:  Privatizing Congo’s Copper Sector,” stating that roughly USD 750 million earned by the DRC’s state-owned mining company Gecamines between 2011 and 2014 cannot be reliably accounted for.  More recently, Gecamines has aggressively audited some of its joint venture partners, threatening to dissolve partnerships, and ultimately expropriate private mine holdings, unless partners transferred more revenue to GDRC and Gecamines accounts.

Privatization Program

The DRC has no official privatization program, though, with support of the World Bank, the GDRC established a Steering Committee in 2010 for the Reform of Public Enterprises (COPIREP), which attempts to address the performance of SOEs.  To date, only a handful of SOEs have undergone reform, with mixed results.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data

Host Country
Statistical Source
USG  International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount  
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

2015

2016

2017

$37,9

$37,1

$37,6

http://data.worldbank.org/country/con 

http://data.worldbank.org/country/con 

https://www.imf.org/en/Countries/COD 

Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI
Data not available.

Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment
Data not available.

Congo, Republic of the

7. State-Owned Enterprises

As a former people’s republic, state-owned enterprises (SOEs) dominated the Congolese economy of the 1970s and 1980s. The remaining number of SOEs remains comparatively small following a wave of privatization in the 1990s. The national oil company (SNPC), electricity company (SNE), and water supply company (SNDE) constitute the largest remaining SOEs. The government reorganized the country’s electricity and water companies in October 2018 to increase efficiency and place a greater emphasis on public-private partnership.

SOEs report to their respective ministries.  SOE corporate governance regulations require non-state corporate directorship. SOEs do not meet this requirement in practice, most notably by the SNPC.

Private companies may compete with public companies and, in some cases, have won contracts sought by SOEs.

Government budget constraints limit SOEs’ operations. Constraints on SOEs operating in the non-oil sector appear sufficiently monitored and subject to civil society and media scrutiny. The operations of SNPC, however, continue to present transparency concerns.

SOEs must publish annual reports subject to examination by the government’s supreme audit institution. In practice, these examinations do not always occur.

The government publishes no official list of SOEs.

No known SOEs in receive non-market based advantages from the government.  SOEs do not directly compete with U.S. or other private companies.

Privatization Program

The ROC has no known program for privatization.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $9,200 2017 $8,701 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 N/A 2017 $230 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 N/A 2017 -$4 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 N/A 2017 314.50% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx    


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Data not available.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Costa Rica

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Costa Rica’s state-owned enterprises (SOEs) are commonly known by their abbreviated names.  They include monopolies in petroleum-derived fuels (RECOPE), lottery (JPS), railroads (INCOFER), local production of ethanol (CNP/FANAL), water distribution (AyA), and electrical distribution (ICE, CNFL, JASEC, ESPH).  SOES have market dominance in insurance (INS), telecommunications (ICE, RACSA, JASEC, ESPH), and finance (BNCR, BCR, BanCredito, Banco Popular, BANHVI, INVU, INFOCOOP). They have significant market participation in parcel and mail delivery (Correos), and ports operation (INCOP and JAPDEVA).  Six of those SOEs hold significant economic power with revenues exceeding 1 percent of GDP: ICE, RECOPE, INS, BNCR, BCR and Banco Popular. Audited returns for each SOE may be found on each company’s website, while basic revenue and costs for each SOE are available on the General Controller’s Office “Sistema de Planes y Presupuestos” https://www.cgr.go.cr/02-consultas/consulta-pp.html  . The Costa Rican government does not currently hold minority stakes in commercial enterprises.

No Costa Rican state-owned enterprise currently requires continuous and substantial state subsidy to survive.  Many SOEs turn a profit, which is allocated as dictated by law and boards of directors. Financial allocations to and earnings from state-owned enterprises may be found in the “Sistema de Informacion de Planes y Presupuestos (SIPP)” within the General Controller’s Office (CGR) site: https://cgrweb.cgr.go.cr/pr02/f?p=150220:2:::NO:::  

U.S. investors and their advocates cite some of the following ways in which Costa Rican SOEs competing in the domestic market receive non-market-based advantages because of their status as state-owned entities.

Electricity generated privately must be distributed through the public entities (including rural electricity cooperatives not strictly classified as SOEs) and is limited to 30 percent of total electrical generation in the country: 15 percent to small privately-owned renewable energy plants and 15 percent to larger “build-operate-transfer” (BOT) operations.

Telecoms and technology sector companies have called attention to the fact that government agencies overwhelmingly choose SOEs as their telecom services providers despite a full assortment of private-sector telecom companies.  The information and telecommunications business chamber (CAMTIC) has been advocating for years against what its members feel to be unfair use by government entities of a provision (Article 2) in the public contracting law that allows non-competitive award of contracts to public entities when functionaries of the awarding entity certify the award to be an efficient use of public funds.  CAMTIC asserts that since 2016, the government has used Article 2 in 135 separate instances for a total contracted amount of over USD 400 million in information and communications technology (ICT) goods and services.

– The state-owned insurance provider National Insurance Institute (INS) has been adjusting to private sector competition since 2009 but in 2018 still registered 72 percent percent of total insurance premiums paid; 13 insurers are now registered with insurance regulator SUGESE: (https://www.sugese.fi.cr/SitePages/index.aspx  ).  New market entrants point to unfair advantages enjoyed by the state-owned insurer INS, including a strong tendency among SOE’s to contract their insurance with INS.

Costa Rica is not a party to the WTO Government Procurement Agreement (GPA) although it is registered as an observer.  Costa Rica strives to adhere to the OECD Guidelines on Corporate Governance for SOEs (www.oecd.org/daf/ca/oecdguidelinesoncorporategovernanceofstate-ownedenterprises.htm  ).

Privatization Program

Costa Rica does not have a privatization program and the markets that have been opened to competition in recent decades – banking, telecommunications, insurance and Atlantic Coast container port operations – were opened without privatizing the corresponding state-owned enterprise(s).

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 $60,126 2017 $57,286 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $19,924 2017 $19,924 IMF CDIS data available at http:/data.imf.org/CDIS 
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $117 2017 $117 IMF CDIS data available at http:/data.imf.org/CDIS  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 63.2% 2017 62.5% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

* For 2017 GDP in dollars with National Accounts exchange rate, the Costa Rican Central Bank (BCCR) is “Host Country Statistical Source”.  http://indicadoreseconomicos.bccr.fi.cr/indicadoreseconomicos/Cuadros/frmVerCatCuadro.aspx?idioma=1&CodCuadro= percent202999  

* For 2017 US FDI stock in Costa Rica, and Costa Rican FDI stock in the US, the Costa Rican Central Bank (BCCR) is “Host Country Statistical Source

* For “Total Inbound Stock of FDI as  percent host GDP”, local statistical source is BCCR.  GDP for 2017 was USD 58,174.6 million; total Inbound FDI stock in 2017 was USD 36,742.7.


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Costa Rica’s open and globally integrated economy receives FDI principally from the United States followed by Europe and Latin America.   Costa Rica’s outward FDI is more regionally focused on its neighbors Nicaragua, Guatemala and Panama, with the U.S. and Colombia following.

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data – 2017
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward 36,743 100% Total Outward 3,023 100%
USA 19,924 54% Nicaragua 955 32%
Spain 2,490 7% Guatemala 907 30%
Mexico 1,872 5% Panama 650 22%
Netherlands 1,443 4% USA 117 4%
Switzerland 1,395 4% Colombia 70 2%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

Stock Positions.  IMF’s Coordinated Direct Investment Survey (CDIS) site: (http:/data.imf.org/CDIS)


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries 1,816 100% All Countries 1,017 100% All Countries 799 100%
USA 924 50.9%% USA 492 48.4% USA 432 54.1%
Ireland 356 19.6% Ireland 354 34.8% UK 85 10.6%
Luxembourg 151 8.3%% Luxembourg 143 14.1% Sweden 74 9.3%
UK 89 4.9%% China PR 3 .3%% Mexico 25 3.1%
Sweden 74 4.1% Canada 3 .3% Australia 20 2.5%

Cote d’Ivoire

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Companies owned or controlled by the state are subject to national laws and the tax code.  The Ivoirian government still holds substantial interests in many firms, including the refinery SIR (49 percent), the public transport firm (60 percent), the national television station RTI (98 percent), the national lottery (80 percent), the national airline Air Cote d’Ivoire (58 percent), and the land management agency Agence de Gestion Fonciere AGEF (35 percent).  Of the SOEs, 28 are wholly government owned, 15 are majority owned, eight are with a blocking minority, and 30 are minority owned.  Each SOE has an independent board. The government has begun the process of divestiture for some state-owned enterprises, but the program has not been completed.  The Ivoirian government is an active participant in the banking, agri-business, mining, and telecom industries.

The published list of SOEs is available at https://dgpe.gouv.ci/index.php?p=portefeuille_etat  

SOEs competing in the domestic market do not receive non-market based advantages from the government.  They are subject to the same tax burdens and policies as private companies.

The corporate governance of SOEs in Cote d’Ivoire does not meet the standards of the OECD, though the government has made some efforts to improve it.

Privatization Program

The government proposed a program to privatize a quarter of public enterprises, including approximately 15 public or semi-public enterprises, banks, the sugar company Sucrivoire (SIFCA), and USD 232 million of investments the government holds in Industrial Promotion Services (IPS)-Aga Khan Foundation projects.  The privatization process is completed for the Societe Ivoirienne de Banque (now Attijariwafa-bank), the sugar company Sucrivoire, and the cotton firm Compagnie Ivoirienne de pour le Developpement du Textile.   At the urging of the IMF, the government is continuing the privatization of banks including Versus Bank, NSIA Bank, and the housing finance bank BHCI.

Foreign investors are encouraged to compete.

These programs have a public bidding process in French.  No website on privatizations is available.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 N/A 2017 USD 37.3 billion www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or international Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2018 N/A 2017 $ -146 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2018 N/A 2017 N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2018 N/A 2017 25.7% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

 


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment from/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations, 2017   (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $8,321 100% Total Outward $1,535 100%
France $1,582 17% Burkina Faso $389 25%
Canada  $1,084 13% Liberia $277 18%
Morocco  $639 8% Mali $170 11%
Belgium,  $530 6% Benin $128 8%
United States  $463 5% Senegal $115 7%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Croatia

7. State-Owned Enterprises

There are currently a total of 65 state-owned enterprises (SOEs) that are either wholly state-owned or in which the state has a majority stake.  The SOEs are managed through the Ministry of State Owned Property or the Center for Restructuring and Sale (CERP). In 2018, the government established an official list of 39 “special state interest” SOEs overseen by the Ministry of State Owned Property, including 19 wholly state-owned and 20 majority state-owned companies.  CERP oversees the other 26 SOEs, of which 12 are wholly state-owned and 14 are majority state-owned.  

These SOEs cover a range of sectors including infrastructure, energy, real estate, finances, transportation and utilities. The latest figures available, from December 31, 2017, show that SOEs employ a total of 73,790 people and have net revenues totaling USD 9.1 billion, while assets total USD 38.7 billion.  The government appoints the members of SOE management and supervisory boards, making the companies very susceptible to political influence. 

CERP also oversees 374 companies; of these, the state owns from ten to 49 percent of 88 companies, and under ten percent of the remaining 260 companies. By statute, CERP must divest the state from these companies. Lists of SOEs are published on the websites of the Ministry of State Owned Assets at https://imovina.gov.hr/   and on CERP’s website at http://www.cerp.hr/  

County and city level governments have majority ownership in approximately 500 companies, mostly utilities; however, exact data is not available. The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) concluded in a report on Croatian SOEs published in 2018 that a way to improve corporate governance and reduce political influence is to appoint professional boards with independent members. The International Monetary Fund Staff Concluding Statement of the 2018 IMF Article IV Mission from December 2018 noted that SOEs’ revenue-generating capacity is low, and that loss-making SOEs are a drain on the state budget.  SOEs competing on the domestic market do not receive market based advantages from the host government.  

The Zagreb Stock exchange is currently working with the EBRD on reviewing and revising the Croatian Corporate Governance Code, which is expected to be finished in August 2019. Croatia is not a member of the OECD, but adheres to OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals from Conflict Affected and High-Risk Areas.  

Privatization Program

Croatia continues to slowly pursue privatization of SOEs through the Ministry of State Owned Assets and the Center for Reconstruction and Sales. There are no restrictions against foreigners participating in privatization tenders. The banking sector, telecommunications, and Croatia’s largest pharmaceutical company were purchased by foreign investors when Croatia initiated its privatization process in the late 1990’s. The bidding process is public and terms are clearly defined in tender documentation, however, problems with bureaucracy and timely judicial remedies can significantly slow progress for projects. There is no privatization timeline; however, the government views privatization as a means to reduce the budget deficit and increase output. The Ministry of State Owned Assets identified completing the privatization of state-owned assets and improving the management of SOE’s as its priorities in its 2018-2020 strategy.  This strategy is available (only in Croatian) at: https://imovina.gov.hr/UserDocsImages/dokumenti/Izvjesca/Strateski percent20plan percent20MIDIM percent202018.-2020.pdf 

All tenders are published internationally and there are no restrictions on foreign investor participation in privatization. The bidding process is public. Tenders are in Croatian and can be found at https://imovina.gov.hr/vijesti/8  .

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 $60,892 2018 $60,805 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2018 $138 N/A N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2018 $56.7 N/A N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2018 65.15% N/A N/A UNCTAD data available at

https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx    

[Select country, scroll down to “FDI Stock”- “Inward”, scan rightward for most recent  year’s “as percentage of gross domestic product”]

*GDP at www.dzs.hr   for 2018, FDI at www.hnb.hr    for Q1-Q3 2018 Note: World Bank and U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis do not have GDP or FDI data available for 2018 at time of publishing.


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $39,675 100% Total Outward $7,722 100%
The Netherlands $6,856 20.4% The Netherlands $3,212 41.6%
Austria $4,326 12.9% Bosnia Herzegovina $1,448 18.8%
Italy $3,612 10.8% Slovenia $1,151 14.9%
Germany $3,215 9.6% Serbia $946 12.2%
Luxembourg $2,756 8.2% Montenegro $302 3.9%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

*FDI at www.hnb.hr    for Q1-Q3 2018


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Cyprus

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Republic of Cyprus

The ROC maintains exclusive or majority-owned stakes in more than 40 SOEs, and is making slow progress towards privatizing some of them (see sections on Privatization and OECD Guidelines on Corporate Governance of SOEs).  There is no comprehensive list of all SOEs available but the most significant are the following: Electricity Authority of Cyprus, Cyprus Telecommunications Authority, Cyprus Sports Organization, Cyprus Ports Authority, Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation, Cyprus Theatrical Organization, and Cyprus Agricultural Payments Organization.  These SOEs operate in a competitive environment (domestically and internationally) and are increasingly responsive to market conditions. The state-owned EAC monopoly on electricity generation and distribution ended in 2014, although competition still remains difficult given the small market size. As an EU Member State, Cyprus is a party to the WTO Government Procurement Agreement (GPA).

OECD Guidelines on Corporate Governance are not mandatory for ROC SOEs, although some of the larger SOEs have started adopting elements of corporate governance best practices in their operating procedures.  Each of the SOEs is subject to dedicated legislation. Most are governed by a board of directors, typically appointed by the government at the start of its term, and for the duration of its term in office. SOE board chairs are typically technocrats, affiliated with the ruling party.  Representatives of labor unions and minority shareholders contribute to decision making. Although they enjoy a fair amount of independence, they report to the relevant minister. SOEs are required by law to publish annual reports and submit their books to the Auditor General.

Area Administered by Turkish Cypriots

In the area administrated by Turkish Cypriots, there are several “state-owned enterprises” and “semi-state-owned enterprises,” usually common utilities and essential services.

In the Turkish Cypriot administered area, the below-listed institutions are known as “public economic enterprises” (POEs), “semi-public enterprises” and “public institutions,” which aim to provide common utilities and essential services.

Some of these organizations include:

  • Turkish Cypriot Electricity Board (KIBTEK);
  • BRTK – State Television and Radio Broadcasting Corporation;
  • Cyprus Turkish News Agency;
  • Turkish Cypriot Milk Industry;
  • Cypruvex Ltd. – Citrus Facility;
  • EMU – Eastern Mediterranean Foundation Board;
  • Agricultural Products Corporation;
  • Turkish Cypriot Tobacco Products Corporation;
  • Turkish Cypriot Alcoholic Products LTD;
  • Coastal Safety and Salvage Services LTD; and
  • Turkish Cypriot Development Bank.

Privatization Program

Republic of Cyprus

The ROC has made limited progress towards privatizations, despite earlier commitments to international creditors in 2013 to raise € 1.4 billion (USD 1.5 billion) from privatizations by 2018.  In July 2017, opposition parties passed legislation abolishing the Privatizations Unit, an independent body established March 2014. Despite this setback, the current administration, remains committed to pursuing privatizations in piecemeal fashion.  The port of Larnaca remains on track for privatization in 2019, while the state lottery is also expected to be sold. The government continues efforts to find long-term investors to lease state-owned properties in the Troodos area, and forge a strategic plan on how to handle the Cyprus Stock Exchange.  A bill providing the transfer of Cyprus Telecommunications Authority (CyTA) commercial activities to a private legal entity, with the government retaining majority ownership has been pending since March 2018.

In December 2015, under the threat of strikes, the government reversed earlier plans to privatize the Electricity Authority of Cyprus (EAC), although it is still pushing ahead with unbundling the EAC’s generation and transmission operations into separate legal entities

Area Administered by Turkish Cypriots

The airport at Ercan and K-Pet Petroleum Corporation have been converted into public-private partnerships.  The concept of privatization continues to be controversial in the Turkish Cypriot community.

In March 2015, Turkish Cypriot authorities signed a public-private partnership agreement with Turkey regarding the management and operation of the water obtained from an underwater pipeline funded by Turkey.  Within the area administrated by Turkish Cypriot s, there has also been discussion about privatizing the electricity authority “KIBTEK”, Turkish Cypriot telecommunications operations, and the sea ports.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $21,724 2017 $22,054 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 -$183 2017 $1,650 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $170 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 1,061.2% UNCTAD data available at 
https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx    

* Source for Host Country Data: Central Bank of Cyprus


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data, end-2017
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (U.S. Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $232,315 100% Total Outward $221,966 100%
Luxembourg $63,037 27% Russian Fed. $38,854 17%
Russian Fed. $40,320 17% Netherlands $11,514 5%
Netherlands $16,503 7% United Kingdom $9,389 4%
Germany $12,107 5% Luxembourg $8,679 4%
British Virgin Islands $5,585 2% Norway $1,519 1%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets, June 2018
Top Five Partners (Millions, U.S. Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries $21,187 100% All Countries $8,565 100% All Countries $12,622 100%
Russian Fed. $5,010 24% Russian Fed. $4,236 49% Luxembourg $1,123 9%
Ireland $2,298 11% Ireland $1,458 17% Ireland $840 7%
Luxembourg $2,262 11% Luxembourg $1,139 13% Russian Fed. $773 6%
United States $950 4% United States $440 5% Netherlands $653 5%
Netherlands $714 3% Ukraine $139 2% Germany $466 4%

Czech Republic

7. State-Owned Enterprises

The Ministry of Finance administers ownership rights of state-owned enterprises (SOEs).  Potential conflicts of interest are covered by existing Act No. 159/2006 on Conflicts of Interest, and newly adopted Act No. 14/2017 on Amendments to the Act on Conflict of Interest.  Legislation on the civil service, which took effect January 1, 2015, established measures to prevent political influence over public administration, including operation of SOEs.

Private enterprises are generally allowed to compete with public enterprises under the same terms and conditions with respect to access to markets, credit, government contracts and other business operations.  SOEs purchase or supply goods or services from private sector/foreign firms. SOEs are subject to the same domestic accounting standards, rules, and taxation policies as their private competitors, and are not given any material advantages compared to private entities.  State-owned or majority state-owned companies are present in several (strategic) fields, including the energy, postal service, information & communication, and transport sectors.

SOEs are usually structured as joint-stock companies.  They do not report directly to government ministries, but are managed by a board of directors (statutory body) and a supervisory board that generally includes representatives of the government and trade unions (representing employees, both union and non-union, as required by law).  Like privately owned joint-stock companies, the SOEs are fully responsible for their obligations toward third parties, although shareholders are not personally liable for a company’s obligations. SOEs are required by law to publish an annual report, disclose their accounting books, and submit to an independent audit.  Private enterprises and SOEs carry out procurement in accordance with the Act on Public Procurement No. 134/2016, and its addendum No. 147/2017, which is fully harmonized with the existing EU legislation on public procurement.

The Czech Republic has 16 wholly-owned SOEs and four majority-owned SOEs.  Wholly-owned SOEs employ roughly 29,000 people, have USD 6 billion in annual income, and own more than USD 9.8 billion in assets.  There is not a unified, published list of all companies with some percentage of state ownership, but information can be found on individual ministry websites or by directly contacting the ministry who manages the company.

As an OECD member, the Czech Republic promotes the OECD Principles of Corporate Governance and the affiliated Guidelines on Corporate Governance for SOEs.  SOEs are subject to the same legislation as private enterprises regarding their commercial activities.

Privatization Program

According to the Ministry of Finance, as a result of several waves of privatization of formerly state-owned companies since 1989, over 90 percent of the Czech economy is now in private hands.  Privatization programs have generally been open to foreign investors. In fact, most major state-owned companies were privatized with foreign participation. The government evaluates all investment offers for state enterprises.  Many complainants have alleged non-transparent or unfair practices in connection with past privatizations. No privatization program is currently underway.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2:  Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (M USD) 2017 $215,861  2017 $215,726 http://data.worldbank.org/country/czech-republic  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in Partner Country (M USD, stock positions) 2017 $1,284 2017 $5,406 http://bea.gov/international/direct_investment_multinational_companies_comprehensive_data.htm  
Host Country’s FDI in the United States (M USD, stock positions) 2017 $85 2017 N/A https://apps.bea.gov/international/factsheet/factsheet.cfm?Area=364  
Total Inbound Stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 65.8% 2017 78.3% https://data.oecd.org/fdi/fdi-stocks.htm  

*Sources:  Czech Statistical Office (www.czso.cz  ), Czech National Bank (https://www.cnb.cz/cnb/obiee_pzi  ).

As of 2015, the Czech National Bank records cross-border equity capital stocks for quoted shares (in line with the ESA 2010 and BPM6 international manuals) at market value instead of book value, rather than valuing FDI as the sum of historical flows, which is the methodology used by the United States.  As a result, while the 2014 figure for total U.S. FDI stock was listed at USD 4.388 billion under the sum of historical flows method, under the new methodology, it is valued at USD 1.567 billion. This explains the large discrepancy between U.S. and Czech figures for 2017.


Table 3:  Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment from/in Counterpart Economy Data – 2017
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $149,556 100% Total Outward $26,708 100%
Netherlands $30,997 21% Netherlands $8,625 32%
Germany $25,304 17% Cyprus $4,920 18%
Luxembourg $16,990 11% Slovakia $3,718 14%
Austria $16,551 11% Luxembourg $3,514 13%
France $11,625 8% Romania $1,222 5%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

The IMF rankings for the top five sources of FDI stock are consistent with data from the Czech National Bank.  IMF rankings for destinations of FDI stock vary – the Czech National Bank lists Luxembourg second, Cyprus third, and Slovakia fourth (as opposed to IMF data, which places Cyprus second, Slovakia third, and Luxembourg fourth).   IMF and Czech National Bank figures for inward direct investment vary by up to 4 percent and figures for outward direct investment vary by up to 6 percent. These statistical distortions are much smaller than previous years as a result of the global adoption of the recently revised OECD Benchmark Definition for FDI, which is designed to discount investment flows from special purpose entities.

The top sources of and destinations of Czech FDI represent a combination of major EU trading partners and favored tax havens.  The leading country for both inward and outward direct investment flows is the Netherlands. In the early 1990s, the Netherlands became a popular place for corporate registration for domestic and foreign businesses active in the Czech Republic.  In recent years, the main rationale for registering a business in the Netherlands is favorable corporate income taxes, stimulating rapid development of offshore corporate structures in the Czech Republic. While the tax haven effect has dissipated (corporate income tax rates in the Czech Republic and Netherlands are nearly equal), the Netherlands remains a popular country for large corporations.  Luxembourg attracts Czech businesses for the same reason. Among other FDI partner countries, Cyprus offers one of the lowest corporate income tax rates in the EU (currently 12.5 percent), and tax exemption of dividends.


Table 4:  Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets – 2017
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries $36,519 100% All Countries $19,732 100% All Countries $16,787 100%
Luxembourg $6,819 19% Luxembourg $5,899 30% Slovakia $2,538 15%
Austria $4,498 12% Belgium $3,036 15% Netherlands $2,310 14%
United States $3,368 9% United

States

$2,280 12% Austria $2,249 13%
Slovakia $3,241 9% Austria $2,248 11% Poland $2,005 12%
Belgium $3,108 9% Ireland $1,305 7% United States $1,088 6%

The Czech National Bank does not provide its own statistical data on portfolio investments by individual countries, but provides a reference to IMF data on its website.  As far as portfolio investment assets for all countries, the 2017 IMF results are consistent with the Czech National Bank’s data.

Denmark

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Denmark is party to the Government Procurement Agreement (GPA) within the framework of the World Trade Organization (WTO). State owned entities (SOEs) hold dominant positions in rail, energy, utility and broadcast media in Denmark. Large scale public procurement must go through public tender in accordance with EU legislation. Competition from SOEs is not considered a barrier to foreign investment in Denmark. As an OECD member, Denmark promotes and upholds the OECD Corporate Governance Principals and subsidiary SOE Guidelines.

Privatization Program

Denmark has no current plans to privatize its SOEs.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $330,250 2017 $324,872 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $11,068 2017 $13,873 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $20,136 2017 $17,974 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 33.8% 2017 35.4% UNCTAD data available at

https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

[Select country, scroll down to “FDI Stock”- “Inward”, scan rightward for most recent  year’s “as percentage of gross domestic product”]

* Source for Host Country Data:
http://www.dst.dk/en/Statistik/emner/nationalregnskab-og-offentlige-finanser/aarligt-nationalregnskab   (or www.statbank.dk  ).


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $151,800 100% Total Outward $235,040 100%
Sweden $25,233 17% UK $29,929 13%
Netherlands $22,270 15% Sweden $29,900 13%
France $17,636 12% Germany $26,227 11%
Luxembourg $15,390 10% Switzerland $21,232 9%
United Kingdom $13,446 9% United States $16,183 7%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

Source: IMF: http://data.imf.org/?sk=40313609-F037-48C1-84B1-E1F1CE54D6D5&sId=1482186404325  


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries $477,399 100% All Countries $275,761 100% All Countries $201,638 100%
U.S.A. $143,069 30% U.S.A. $104,272 38% Germany $47,222 23%
Germany $58,002 12% Luxembourg $32,105 12% United States $38,797 19%
Luxembourg $36,405 8% UK $18,457 7% Sweden $15,483 8%
UK $27,265 6% Ireland $16,259 6% France $12,286 6%
Sweden $25,947 5% Japan $11,186 4% Netherlands $10,043 5%

Source: IMF: http://data.imf.org/regular.aspx?key=60587804  

Dominica

7. State-Owned Enterprises

State-owned enterprises (SOEs) in Dominica work in partnership with ministries, or under their remit to carry out certain specific ministerial responsibilities.  There are currently 20 SOEs in Dominica operating in areas such as tourism, investment services, broadcasting and media, solid waste management, and agriculture. They are all wholly-owned government entities.  Each is headed by a board of directors which senior management reports.

Privatization Program

Dominica does not currently have a targeted privatization program.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 $411.7 2017 $496.7 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 68.9% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

* Source for Host Country Data: Eastern Caribbean Central Bank https://www.eccb-centralbank.org/statistics/dashboard-datas/   . All ECCB GDP figures for 2018 are currently estimates.


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Data not available; Dominica does not appear in the IMF’s Coordinated Direct Investment Survey (CDIS).


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available; Dominica does not appear the IMF Coordinated Portfolio Investment Survey (CPIS).

Dominican Republic

7. State-Owned Enterprises

State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs) in general do not have a significant presence in the economy, with most functions performed by privately-held firms.  Notable exceptions are in the electricity, banking, and refining sectors. The government lists 22 public enterprises in its budget documents, primarily as public utilities, state-run banks, or quasi-public entities that manage infrastructure.  The largest of these is the Dominican Corporation of State Electrical Companies (CDEEE). In the electricity sector, generally speaking, private companies only operate in the electricity generation phase of the process, with the government handling the transmission and distribution phases.  However, Punta Cana-Macao Energy Consortium (CEPM), a private company that generates and transmits electricity in the Punta Cana area, is a notable exception. 

Law 10-04 requires the Chamber of Accounts to audit SOEs.  Audits are published in http://www.camaradecuentas.gob.do/index.php/auditorias-realizadas  However, the available audits are dated several years ago. In addition, all audits are available upon request according to freedom of information provisions.

Privatization Program

The government does not have any privatization programs.  A partial privatization of state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in the late 1990s resulted in foreign investors obtaining management control of former SOEs engaged in activities such as electricity generation, airport management, and sugarcane processing.  In 2017, the government ordered the dissolution of the SOE corporation that previously managed several (now private) SOEs (CORDE).

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 $81,283 2017 $75,932 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $2,140 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $2 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 47.5 UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Data not available (country not reported on IMF/CDIS website)


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available (country not reported on IMF/CDIS website)

Ecuador

7. State-Owned Enterprises

The 18 SOEs in Ecuador are concentrated primarily in the petroleum, electricity, and telecommunications sectors.  The government also owns an airline, a railroad company, a cement company, and a university.  Two SOEs, Petroamazonas and Petroecuador, control the petroleum sector.  The government has a rationalization and reorganization plan for some of these entities, reducing the total from an original of 22 to 15 by merging some and dissolving others.

The 2009 Organic Law of Public Enterprises regulates state-owned enterprises (SOEs).  SOEs are most active in areas designated by the 2008 Constitution as strategic sectors.  Ecuador’s Coordinator of Public Companies maintains a list of SOEs at http://www.emco.gob.ec/empresas-publicas/ .  SOEs follow a special procurement regime with greater flexibility and limited oversight.  The Law of Public Enterprises requires SOEs to follow generally accepted accounting principles; however, SOEs are not required to follow the same accounting practices as the central government, nor do they have to participate in the electronic financial management system used in most of the public sector for budget and accounting management.  SOEs are eligible for government guarantees, and face lower tax burdens than private companies.

Ecuador is not party to the Government Procurement Agreement (GPA) within the framework of the World Trade Organization.

Privatization Program

Ecuador is not implementing a privatization program, although the Ministry of Trade and Investment is touting a number of projects as potential public private partnerships.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount  
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($B USD) 2018 $108.3 2017 $104.3 www.worldbank.org/en/country 
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $779 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data 
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $14 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data 
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 17.7% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx   

 

* Source for Host Country Data: Central Bank of Ecuador.  The Central Bank publishes FDI calculated as net flows only.  Outward Direct Investment statistics are not published by the Central Bank.


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $1,401 100% Total Outward Amount 100%
Bermuda $199.7 14% N/A N/A
Canada $196.8 14% N/A N/A
Netherlands $186.2 13% N/A N/A
Spain $173.6 12% N/A N/A
Cayman Islands $111.3 8% N/A N/A
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

Source: Ecuador Central Bank, no Information available on the IMF’s CDIS website, and there no information available on Outward Direct Investment

Egypt

7. State-Owned Enterprises

State and military-owned companies compete directly with private companies in many sectors of the Egyptian economy.  According to Public Sector Law 203//1991, SOEs should not receive preferential treatment from the government, nor should they be accorded any exemption from legal requirements applicable to private companies.  In addition to the SOEs groups, 40 percent of the banking sector’s assets are controlled by three state-owned banks (Banque Misr, Banque du Caire, and National Bank of Egypt). In March 2014, the government announced that nine public holding companies will be placed under an independent sovereign fund.

In an attempt to encourage growth of the private sector, privatization of SOEs and state-owned banks accelerated under an economic reform program that took place from 1991 to 2008. Following the 2011 revolution, third parties have brought cases in court to reverse privatization deals, and in a number of these cases, Egyptian courts have ruled to reverse the privatization of several former public companies.  Most of these cases are still under appeal.

The state-owned telephone company, Telecom Egypt, lost its legal monopoly on the local, long-distance, and international telecommunication sectors in 2005.  Nevertheless, Telecom Egypt held a de facto monopoly until late 2016 because the National Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (NTRA) had not issued additional licenses to compete in these sectors.  In October 2016, NTRA, however, implemented a unified license regime that allows companies to offer both fixed line and mobile networks. The agreement allows Telecom Egypt to enter the mobile market and the three existing mobile companies to enter the fixed line market.  The introduction of Telecom Egypt as a new mobile operator in the Egyptian market will increase competition among operators, which will benefit users by raising the bar on the quality of services as well as improving prices. Egypt is not a party to the WTO’s Government Procurement Agreement.

SOEs in Egypt are structured as individual companies controlled by boards of directors and grouped under government holding companies that are arranged by industry, including Petroleum Products & Gas, Spinning & Weaving; Metallurgical Industries; Chemical Industries; Pharmaceuticals; Food Industries; Building & Construction; Tourism, Hotels & Cinema; Maritime & Inland Transport; Aviation; and Insurance. The holding companies are headed by boards of directors appointed by the Prime Minister with input from the relevant Minister.

Privatization Program

Egypt has made some progress on its program to privatize 23 State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs). The process formally began in March 2019 with a successful public offering of a minority stake in the Eastern Tobacco Company. The long-awaited program had been delayed repotedly due to market conditions.  The government plans to sell 20-30 percent of Banque du Caire’s shares in an initial public offering on the EGX by the end of 2019, according to the Central Bank. Efforts to privatize before had stalled in an environment where the public often associates privatization with poor quality and higher prices.

Egypt’s privatization program is based on Public Enterprise Law 203//1991, which permits the sale of SOEs to foreign entities.  In 1991, Egypt began a privatization program for the sale of several hundred wholly or partially SOEs and all public shares of at least 660 joint venture companies (joint venture is defined as mixed state and private ownership, whether foreign or domestic).  Bidding criteria for privatizations were generally clear and transparent.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (M USD ) 2017 $235,370    2018 $242,800 www.worldbank.org/en/country  
Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country (M USD , stock positions) 2018 $2,244.4  2017 $9,352.0  BEA data available at https://tradingeconomics.com/egypt/foreign-direct-investment  
Host country’s FDI in the United States (M USD , stock positions) 2017  $2,960.0  2017  $2,950.5 BEA data available at http://bea.gov/international/direct_investment_multinational_companies_comprehensive_data.htm  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 55.63% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

Measurements of FDI in Egypt vary according to the source and the definitions employed to calculate the figure.  The Central Bank of Egypt records figures on quarterly and annual investment flows based on financial records for Egypt’s balance of payments statistics.  They are reported in the table below. The Ministry of Petroleum maintains statistics on investment in the oil and gas sector (which accounts for the bulk of FDI in Egypt), while GAFI has statistics on all other investments – including re-invested earnings and investment-in-kind.  Statistics are not always current. GAFI’s figures are calculated in EGP at the historical value and rate of exchange, with no allowance for depreciation, and are cumulative starting from 1971.

U.S. firms are active in a wide range of manufacturing industries, producing goods for the domestic and export markets.  U.S. investors include American Express, AIG, Ideal Standard, Apache Corporation, Bechtel, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Cargill, Citibank, Coca-Cola, Devon Energy, Dow Chemical, ExxonMobil, Eveready, General Motors, Guardian Industries, H.J.  Heinz, Johnson & Johnson, Kellogg’s, Mars, Mondelez, Microsoft, Proctor and Gamble, Pfizer, PepsiCo, Pioneer, and Xerox. Leading investors from other countries include BG, ENI-AGIP, BP, Vodaphone, and Shell (in the oil/gas sector), Unilever, Al-Futtaim, (UAE), the M.A. Kharafi Group (Kuwait), and the Kingdom Development Company (Saudi Arabia).


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Data not available.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars, 2016)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries $1,886 100% All Countries $888 100% All Countries $998 100%
Cayman Islands $416 22% Saudi Arabia $347 39% Cayman Islands $406 41%
Saudi Arabia $392 13% International Organizations $250 28% United States $190 19%
International Organizations $250 12% United Kingdom $45 5% Qatar $103 10%
United States $219 5% Italy $36 4% Germany $48 5%
Qatar $103 5% Switzerland $32 4% Saudi Arabia $46 5%

El Salvador

7. State-Owned Enterprises

El Salvador has successfully liberalized many sectors, though it maintains state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in energy production, water supply and sanitation, ports and airports, and the national lottery (see chart below).

SOE 2019 Budgeted Revenue Number of Employees
National Lottery  USD         51,653,500.00  150
State-run Electricity  Company (CEL)  USD          362,033,465.00  895
Water Authority (ANDA) USD          221,265,600.00  4,356
Port Authority (CEPA) USD          140,589,815.00  2,104

Although the GOES privatized energy distribution in 1999, it maintains significant energy production facilities through state-owned Rio Lempa Executive Hydroelectric Commission (CEL), a significant producer of hydroelectric and geothermal energy.  The primary water service provider is the National Water and Sewer Administration (ANDA), which provides services to 96 percent of urban areas and 77 percent of rural areas in El Salvador. As an umbrella institution, ANDA defines policies, regulates and provides services.  The Autonomous Executive Port Commission (CEPA) operates both the seaports and the airports. CEL, ANDA, and CEPA Board Chairs hold Minister-level rank and report directly to the President.

The Law on Public Administration Procurement and Contracting (LACAP) covers all procurement of goods and services by all Salvadoran public institutions, including the municipalities.  Exceptions to LACAP include: procurement and contracting financed with funds coming from other countries (bilateral agreements) or international bodies; agreements between state institutions; and the contracting of personal services by public institutions under the provisions of the Law on Salaries, Contracts and Day Work.  The government publishes tenders by government institutions at: https://www.comprasal.gob.sv/comprasal_web/  .

Alba Petroleos is a joint venture between a consortium of mayors from the FMLN party and a subsidiary of Venezuela’s state-owned oil company PDVSA.  Alba Petroleos operates 55 gasoline service stations across the country and businesses in a number of other industries, including energy production, food production, medicines, micro-lending, supermarkets, and bus transportation.  Critics have charged that the conglomerate receives preferential treatment and have also alleged that Alba Petroleos’ commercial practices, including financial reporting, are non-transparent. Although audited financial statements are not available to the public, Alba Petroleos is at risk of insolvency.  A February 2019 report from the Court of Accounts notes that Alba Petroleos had losses equivalent to 113 percent of its capital (Alba Petroleos refuse to publish financial statements).

Privatization Program

El Salvador is not engaged in a privatization program and has not announced plans to privatize.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $24,805.44 2017 $24,805  https://data.worldbank.org/country/el-salvador  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $2,611.41 2017 $3,037 BEA data available at https://apps.bea.gov/international/factsheet/factsheet.cfm?Area=209  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 N.A. 2017 N.A. BEA data available at http://bea.gov/international/direct_investment_multinational_companies_comprehensive_data.htm  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 10.5% 2017 12.2% N/A

* Central Bank, El Salvador.  In 2018, the Central Bank released GDP estimates using the new national accounts system from 2008 and using 2005 as the base year.


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data (2017)*
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward 9,603 100% Total Outward 2 100%
Panama  2,661 27.7% Guatemala 1 44%
United States 2,611 27.2% Nicaragua 1 34%
Mexico 871 9.1% Costa Rica 0 12%
Spain 867 9.0% Honduras 0 44%
Colombia 851 8.9%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

*Coordinated Direct Investment Survey, International Monetary Fund


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

There is no IMF data for portfolio investment assets available for El Salvador.

Equatorial Guinea

7. State-Owned Enterprises

The Republic of Guinea Equatorial has at least eight State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs) in the energy, housing, fishing, aerospace and defense, and information and communication sectors.  Sonagas is the national natural gas company and GEPetrol is the national oil company. The energy SOEs report to the Ministry of Mines and Hydrocarbons, and hold monopolies in their respective sectors.  SEGESA is the national electricity company. Gecomsa and GETESA are the national telecommunication service providers. SONAPESCA focusses on the promotion of fishing and reports to the Minister of Fisheries & Water Resources.  ENPIGE is the SOE that oversees the government’s affordable housing program. CEIBA Intercontinental is the main airline, and a joint venture between the government and Ethiopian Airlines.

The budget includes allocations to and earnings from SOEs.  Large SOEs lacked publicly available audits. According to some companies, there is little evidence of oversight of SOEs.  However, a requirement of the IMF’s 2018 staff monitored program is that the government hire an internationally reputable firm to audit the accounts of the state-owned oil (GEPetrol) and gas (Sonagas) companies and the government was in the process of hiring an audit firm at the start of 2019.

All oil and gas projects must include a partnership with state-owned companies GEPetrol or Sonagas.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) N/A N/A 2017 $12,294 www.worldbank.org/en/country  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $654 BEA data available at http://bea.gov/international/direct_investment_multinational_companies_comprehensive_data.htm  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2016 $2 BEA data available at http://bea.gov/international/direct_investment_multinational_companies_comprehensive_data.htm  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 117.4% UNCTAD data available at

https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

*Equatorial Guinea does not regularly produce figures for public consumption in regards to their finances.

Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Data not available.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Estonia

7. State-Owned Enterprises

In Estonia SOEs are primarily engaged in the provision of services of strategic importance.

In early 2019, the Republic of Estonia held an interest in 30 companies of which 27 were solely owned by the state. The largest SOE`s are Eesti Energia (electricity production), Elering (electricity TSO), Estonian Railways, Tallinn Airport, Port of Tallinn.

The full list of SOEs is available at: https://www.eesti.ee/eng/contacts/riigi_osalusega_ariuhingud_1/riigi_osalusega_ariuhingud_2  

SOEs have assets worth about 6.6 billion euros and they employ about 13,000 people.

Public enterprises operate on the same legal basis as private enterprises. Until recently SOEs had politically-appointed boards but today board members are appointed by an independent committee. SOEs are governed by the different ministries.

Competition and public procurement of SOEs is subject to EU law.  All SOEs have audited accounts. Large SOEs’ audits are publicly available on their websites.  The activities of the SOEs are also audited by the National Audit Office of Estonia, which conducts assessments and provides recommendations directly to the Parliament.

Privatization Program

Estonia’s privatization program is largely complete. Only a small number of enterprises remain wholly state-owned. There have been recent discussions on the political level about the possible listing of additional SOEs, such as Port of Tallinn and part of Eesti Energia.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 $30,329   2018 $29,527 https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPD@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD/EST  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in Partner Country ($M USD, stock positions) 2018 $364 2017 $72 http://statistika.eestipank.ee/?lng=en#treeMenu/MAKSEBIL_JA_INVPOS/146  
BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/di1usdbal _multinational_companies_comprehensive_data.htm 
Host Country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2018 $132 2018 N/A http://statistika.eestipank.ee/?lng=en#treeMenu/MAKSEBIL_JA_INVPOS/146  
BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/di1fdibal   
Total Inbound Stock of FDI as % host GDP 2018 83% 2017 98.8% https://unctad.org/sections/dite_dir/docs/wir2018/wir18_fs_ee_en.pdf 


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $25,130 100% Total Outward $8,209 100%
Sweden $6,389 25% Lithuania $1,726 21%
Finland $5,817 23% Latvia $1,695 20.6%
Netherlands $1,838 7% Cyprus $1,316 16%
Luxembourg $1,475 5% Finland $771 9%
Lithuania $1,026 4% Russia $304 4%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries 14,342 100% All Countries 3,998 100% All Countries 10,344 100%
International Organizations 4,987 35% Luxembourg 930 23% International Organizations 4,987 48
Luxembourg 2,225 16% U.S. 675 17% Luxembourg 1,295 12.5%
U.S 972 7% Ireland 628 16% France 543 5%
France 793 6% Finland 353 9% Lithuania 451 4%
Ireland  655 4.5% France 249 6% Germany 405 4%

Source: Bank of Estonia, IMF http://data.imf.org/regular.aspx?key=60587804  

Eswatini

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Eswatini has over 30 SOEs, which are active in agribusiness, information and communication, energy, automotive and ground transportation  , health, housing, travel and tourism, building education, business development, finance, environment, and publishing, media, and entertainment  .

The Swati government defines SOEs as private enterprises, separated into two categories. Category A represents SOEs that are wholly owned by government. Category B represents SOEs in which government has a minority interest, or which monitor other financial institutions or a local government authority. These categories are further broken down into profit-making SOEs with a social responsibility focus, those that are profit-making and developmental, those that are regulatory, and those that are regulatory but developmental. SOEs purchase and supply goods and services to and from the private sector including foreign firms. Those in which government is a minority shareholder are subject to the same tax burden and tax rebate policies as the private sector. The Public Enterprise Act governs SOEs. The Boards of the respective SOEs review their budgets before tabling them to the relevant line ministry, which, in turn, tables them to Parliament for scrutiny by the Public Accounts Committee. The Ministry of Finance’s Public Enterprise Unit (PEU) maintains a published list of SOEs, available on request from the PEU. SOEs do not receive non-market based advantages from government.

Eswatini SOEs generally conform to the OECD Guidelines on Corporate Governance for SOEs. Senior managers of SOEs report to the board and, in turn, the board reports to a line minister. The minister then works with the Standing Committee on Public Enterprise (SCOPE), which is composed of cabinet ministers. SOEs are governed by the Public Enterprises Act, which requires audits of the SOEs and public annual reports. Government is not involved in the day-to-day management of SOEs. Boards of SOEs exercise their independence and responsibility. The Public Enterprise Unit provides regular monitoring of SOEs. The line minister of the SOE appoints the board and, in some cases, the appointments are politically motivated. In some cases, the king appoints his own representative as well. Generally, court processes are nondiscriminatory in relation to SOEs.

A published list of SOEs can be found on: http://www.gov.sz/index.php/component/content/article/141-test/1995-swaziland-enterprise-parastatals?Itemid=799  

Eswatini SOEs operate primarily in the domestic market.

Privatization Program

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has long advised the Eswatini government to privatize SOEs, particularly in the telecommunications sector and the electricity sector. In response, the government has passed several laws, and privatization efforts have begun to advance. The past two years have seen the launch of several private telecommunications companies such as Swazi Mobile, which has lowered prices and improved mobile and data offerings in the country.

Sectors and timelines have not been prioritized for future privatization, although it is likely that some SOEs following the public launch of the Revised National Development Strategy.

The government is working to reduce the country’s dependence on foreign electricity by promoting renewable energy production. Eswatini imports the bulk of its electricity from South Africa and Mozambique, reaching 100 percent importation during a recent drought, since domestic production comes predominantly from hydropower. With assistance from USAID’s Southern Africa Energy Program (SAEP), the government has developed a National Grid Code and a Renewable Energy and Independent Power Producer (RE&IPP) Policy to provide a framework for the sector and incentivize investors. SAEP is currently providing technical assistance on two separate 10-megawatt photovoltaic projects that are projected to integrate into the grid by late 2019.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (M USD) 2016 $3,817 2017 $4,434 www.worldbank.org/en/country  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or international Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country (M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A N/A
Host country’s FDI in the United States (M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A N/A
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2016 23% 2017 19.5% N/A


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Foreign direct investment position data are not available for Eswatini.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Ethiopia

7. State-Owned Enterprises

State-owned enterprises (SOEs) dominate major sectors of the economy.  There is a state monopoly or state dominance in telecommunications, power, banking, insurance, air transport, shipping, railway, industrial parks, petroleum importing, and sugar sectors.   State-owned enterprises have considerable advantages over private firms including priority access to credit and customs clearances. While there are no conclusive reports of credit preference for these entities, there are indications that they receive incentives, such as priority foreign exchange allocation, preferences in government tenders, and marketing assistance.  Ethiopia does not publish financial data for most state-owned enterprises, but Ethiopian Airlines and the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia have transparent accounts.

Ethiopia is not a member to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and does not adhere to the guidelines on corporate governance of SOEs.  Corporate governance of SOEs is structured and monitored by a board of directors composed of senior government officials and politically-affiliated individuals, but there is a lack of transparency in the structure of SOEs.

Privatization Program

In July 2018 the government announced the intention to privatize a minority share of Ethiopian Airlines, EthioTelecom, Ethiopian Shipping and Logistics Service Enterprise, and power generation projects, and to fully privatize sugar projects, railways, and industrial parks.  The privatization program will be implemented through public tenders and will be open to local and foreign investors. The background work for the privatization in several sectors is underway, including asset valuation of the enterprises, standardization of the financial reports, and establishment of modernized legal and regulatory frameworks.

The government has sold more than 370 public enterprises since 1995, mainly small companies in the trade and service sectors, which were largely nationalized by the Derg military regime in the 1970s.  Currently, twenty two SOEs are under the Public Enterprise, Assets, and Administration Agency.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (M USD) 2017/18 $84,356 2017 $80,561 www.worldbank.org/en/country  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country (M USD, stock positions) 2018 $600  2018 N/A http://www.investethiopia.gov.et/  
Host country’s FDI in the United States (M USD, stock positions) 2017 N/A 2017 N/A http://bea.gov/international/direct_investment_multinational_companies_comprehensive_data.htm  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2018 10.6% 2017 23.6% http://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

*National Bank of Ethiopia and Ethiopian Investment Commission


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars*, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $8,930  100% Total Outward*** N/A N/A
China $2,219  24.9% N/A N/A N/A
Saudi Arabia $1,525  17.1% N/A N/A N/A
Turkey $917  10.3% N/A N/A N/A
India $719 8.1% N/A N/A N/A
EU** $685 7.7% N/A N/A N/A
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

Data regarding inward direct investment are not available for Ethiopia via IMF’s Coordinated Direct Investment Survey (CDIS) site (http://data.imf.org/CDIS  ) so we have used data from Ethiopian investment Commission.

*The yearly average exchange rate is used for each year from 1992-2017 to convert the amount of FDI from domestic currency into USD.
** EU includes Netherlands, France, Ireland, Germany and UK.
*** Total Outward investment data are not available.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data regarding the equity/debt breakdown of portfolio investment assets are not available for Ethiopia via the IMF’s Coordinated Portfolio Investment Survey (CPIS) and are not available for external publication from the Government of Ethiopia.

Fiji

7. State-Owned Enterprises

State-owned enterprises (SOEs) in Fiji are concentrated in utilities and key services and industries including aerospace (Fiji Airways, Airports Fiji Limited); agribusiness (Fiji Pine Ltd); energy (Energy Fiji Limited); food processing (Fiji Sugar Corporation, Pacific Fishing Company); information and communication (Amalgamated Telecom Holdings); and media (Fiji Broadcasting Corporation Ltd).  There are eleven Government Commercial Companies which operate commercially and are fully owned by the government, five Commercial Statutory Authorities (CSA) which have regulatory functions and charge nominal fees for their services, six Majority Owned Companies, and two Minority Owned Companies with some government equity. The SOEs that provide essential utilities, such as energy and water, also have social responsibility and non-commercial obligations.

Aside from the CSAs, SOEs do not exercise delegated governmental powers.  SOEs benefit from economies of scale and may be favored in certain sectors. The Fiji Broadcasting Company Ltd (FBCL) is exempt from the Media Decree, which governs private media organizations and exposes private media to criminal libel lawsuits.  In some sectors, the government has pursued a policy of opening up or deregulating various sectors of the economy.

Privatization Program

In 2018, government divested its ownership in the Government Printing and Stationery Department.  The government also signed the first public private partnership agreement in the medical sector with an Australian company to develop, upgrade, and operate the Ba and Lautoka hospitals, the country’s two major hospitals in the western region.  To encourage more private sector participation, the government continues to support the partial divestment of shares in certain government companies as well as the sale of some of its assets in aviation infrastructure and energy. Foreign investors are increasingly participating in public-private sector partnership arrangements in the energy, health, and maritime port sectors.  Information on these programs and opportunities is published in the local newspapers and the Ministry of Economy’s website (http://www.economy.gov.fj/  )

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $5,061.2 2016 $4,671.3 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 N/A 2017 $148 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 N/A 2017 N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 N/A 2017 92.0 UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

* Source for Host Country DataU.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, United Nations Conference on Trade Development

Finland

7. State-Owned Enterprises

State Owned Enterprises (SOEs) in Finland are active in chemicals, petrochemicals, plastics and composites; energy and mining; environmental technologies; food processing and packaging; industrial equipment and supplies; marine technology; media and entertainment; metal manufacturing and products; services; and travel.  The Ownership Steering Act (1368/2007) regulates the administration of state-owned companies: https://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/2007/en20071368  .  In general, SOEs are open to competition except where they have a monopoly position, namely in alcohol retail and gambling.  The Ownership Steering Department in the Prime Minister’s Office has ownership steering responsibility for Finnish SOEs, and is responsible for Solidium.

The GOF, directly or through Solidium, is a significant owner in 16 companies listed on the Helsinki stock exchange.  The market value of all State shareholdings was approximately USD 32.1 billion as of April 2019. More info can be found here:  https://vnk.fi/en/value-of-state-holdings  .  The GOF has majority ownership of shares in two listed companies (Finnair and Fortum) and owns shares in 33 commercial companies:  https://vnk.fi/en/state-shareholdings-and-parliamentary-authorisations   (April 2019).  The business development company Vake was established in 2016, and became fully operational in 2018.  Vake’s role is to manage the State shareholdings under its control and to create conditions for reform.  More information can be found here: https://vake.fi/enhome  .

Finnish state ownership steering complies with the OECD Principles of Corporate Governance.

The Parliamentary Advisory Council in the Prime Minister’s Office serves in an advisory capacity regarding SOE policy; it does not make recommendations regarding the actual business in which the individual companies are engaged.  The government has proposed changing its ownership levels in several companies and increasing the number of companies steered by the Prime Minister’s Office. The Government has also proposed to lower the limit for retaining a strategic interest to 33.4 percent.  

Finland opened domestic rail freight to competition in early 2007, and in July 2016, Fenniarail Oy, the first private rail operator on the Finnish market, began operations.  Passenger rail transport services will be opened to competition in stages, starting with local rail services in southern Finland. The government’s stated objective was to complete the local rail service tendering process and commence operations in June 2021.  The ensuing transport systems are scheduled to be operational by 2026. Three wholly state-owned enterprises will be separated from Finnish State Railways (VR) to create a level playing field for all operators: a rolling stock company, a maintenance company, and a real estate company.  The Finnish Ministry of Transport and Communications and VR have negotiated a rail traffic service purchase agreement covering long-distance services as well as commuter services outside the Helsinki Region. The agreement is valid until December 31, 2019, and affords the VR Group exclusive rights for passenger rail services.

Cross-border transportation between Finland and Russia was opened to competition in December 2016.  Trains to and from Russia can be operated by any railroad with permission to operate in the EU. This was earlier VR’s exclusive domain.  Fenniarail Oy has an agreement with VR regarding information exchange between authorities in Finland and Russia, approvals of rail wagons on the Finnish rail network and the safety of rail wagons.  The agreement was signed in January 2017 for an initial trial period.

Privatization Program

Parliament makes all decisions identifying the companies in which the State may relinquish sole ownership (100 percent of the votes) or control (minimum of 50.1 percent of the votes), while the Government decides on the actual sale.  The State has privatized companies by selling shares to Finnish and foreign institutional investors, through both public offerings and directly to employees. Sales of direct holdings of the State totaled USD 1.72 billion from 2010 to 2019.  Solidium’s share sales totaled some USD 6.53 billion from June 2009 – April 2019. Proceeds are primarily used for repayment of central government debt, with a smaller proportion to strengthen the economy and promote growth. The Government issued a new resolution on state-ownership policy in May 2016, seeking to ensure that corporate assets held by the State are put to more efficient use to boost economic growth and employment.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $253,000 2017 $252,000 www.worldbank.org/en/country  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $3,318 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $1,745 2017 $8,741 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 32.8% 2017 36.7% UNCTAD data available at

https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

* Source for Host Country Data: Statistics Finland, published October 31, 2018.


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $86,643 100% Total Outward $129,866 100%
Sweden $31,135 35.9% Netherlands $38,073 29.3%
Netherlands $17,482 20.2% Sweden $32,381 24.9%
Luxembourg $14,952 17.3% Ireland $12,143 9.4%
Denmark $6,677 7.7% France $3,873 3.0%
Germany $2,601 3.0% Luxembourg $3,370 2.6%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All

Countries

$372,766 100% All

Countries

$222,430 100% All Countries $150,336 100%
United States $65,172 17.5% Ireland $49,117 22.1% Sweden $17,668 11.8%
Ireland $54,346 14.6% Luxembourg $41,528 18.7% Germany $16,165 10.8%
Luxembourg $47,105 12.6% Sweden $15,917 7.2% France $13,519 9.0%
Sweden $33,584 9.0% Cayman Islands $15,818 7.1% Netherlands $11,165 7.4%
Germany $22,628 6.1% Germany $6,463 2.9% Norway $6,127 4.1%

France and Monaco

7. State-Owned Enterprises

The 12 listed entities in which the French State maintains stakes are Aeroports de Paris (50.63 percent), Airbus Group (11.03 percent), Air France-KLM (14.29 percent), CNP Assurances (holds 1.11 percent; controls 66 percent), Dexia (5.73 percent), EDF (83.66 percent), ENGIE (23.64 percent), Orange (a direct 13.39 percent stake and a 9.60 percent stake through Bpifrance), Renault (15.1 percent), Safran (10.81 percent of shares and 21.9 percent of voting rights), and Thales 25.71 percent). Unlisted companies owned by the State include SNCF (rail), RATP (public transport), CDC (Caisse des depots et consignations) and La Banque Postale (bank). In all, the government has majority and minority stakes in 81 firms, in a variety of sectors.

Private enterprises have the same access to financing as SOEs, including from state-owned banks or other state-owned investment vehicles. SOEs are subject to the same tax burden and tax rebate policies as their private sector competitors. SOEs may get subsidies and other financial resources from the government.

France, as a member of the European Union, is party to the Agreement on Government Procurement (GPA) within the framework of the World Trade Organization. Companies owned or controlled by the state behave largely like other companies in France and are subject to the same laws and tax code. The Boards of SOEs operate according to accepted French corporate governance principles as set out in the (private sector) AFEP-MEDEF Code of Corporate Governance. SOEs are required by law to publish an annual report, and the French Court of Audit conducts financial audits on all entities in which the state holds a majority interest. The French government appoints representatives to the Boards of Directors of all companies in which it holds significant numbers of shares, and manages its portfolio through a special unit attached to the Ministry for the Economy and Finance Ministry, the shareholding agency APE (Agence de Participations de l’Etat). A recent APE annual report highlighted the government’s strategy to keep a sufficient level of control in strategically important companies while scaling back its shareholdings in traditional industrial sectors to invest in fast-growing companies in key sectors for economic growth.

Privatization Program

The government has partially privatized many large companies, including Air France, Orange, Renault, PSA, and ENGIE in order to create a 10 billion EUR fund for innovation and research. However, the government continues to maintain a strong presence in some sectors, particularly power, public transport, and defense industries.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $2,592,818 2018 $3,067,826 https://data.oecd.org/gdp/gross-domestic-product-gdp.htm#indicator-chart  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $62,367 2017 $85,572 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $219,687 2018 $301,540 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 36.1 2017 36.1% UNCTAD data available at

https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

 

Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment from/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward 874,521 100% Total Outward 1,451,663 100%
Luxembourg 178,033 20% United States 253,822 17%
Netherlands 111,158 13% Belgium 178,663 12%
United Kingdom 107,815 12% Netherlands 158,588 11%
Switzerland 88,826 10% United Kingdom 134,746 9%
Germany 81,986 9% Germany 84,543 6%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

 

Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries $2,887,607 100% All Countries $931,712 100% All Countries $1,995,895 100%
Luxembourg $481,706 17% Luxembourg $287,781 31% Netherlands $234,696 12%
United States $307,540 11% United States $107,912 12% Italy $211,644 11%
Netherlands $293,559 10% Germany $92,519 10% United Kingdom $205,513 11%
United Kingdom $269,065 9% Ireland $71,831 8% United States $199,628 10%
Italy $246,658 9% United Kingdom $63,552 7% Luxembourg $193,924 10%

Gabon

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Government-appointed civil servants manage Gabonese state-owned enterprises (SOEs), which work primarily in energy, extractive industries, and public utilities.  SOEs generally follow OECD guidelines on corporate governance.  Corporate governance of SOEs usually consists of a board of directors under the authority of the related ministry.  Each ministry chooses the members of the board.  The ministry does not allocate board seats specifically to government officials and may choose members from the general public.  The SOEs often consult with their ministry before undertaking any important business decisions.  The corresponding ministry in each sector prepares and submits the budget of each SOE each year.  Independent auditors examine the activities of SOEs each year, conducting the audit according to international standards.  Auditors do not publish their reports, but rather, submit them to the relevant ministry. There is no published list of SOEs.

There are no specific laws or rules that offer preferential treatment to SOEs.  However, although private enterprises may compete with public enterprises under open market access conditions, SOEs often have a competitive advantage in the industries in which they operate.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) N/A N/A 2017 $15,014 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 – $251 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $1 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 66.8% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx    


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Data not available.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Gambia, The

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Private enterprises are allowed to compete with public enterprises under the same terms and conditions with respect to access to markets, credit, and other business operations, such as licenses and supplies. State-owned enterprises are active in tourism, aviation, maritime services, public transport, power generation, telecommunications, road building, and housing.

There is no publicly available published list of SOEs.

By using the Guidelines to form an integral part in organizing good practices among their state-owned enterprise sectors, promoting the implementation of the Guidelines in establishing their ownership practices, defining a framework for corporate governance of state-owned enterprises, and disseminating this Recommendation of the Guidelines among Ministries. Additionally, the GOTG is open to a review by the Working Party on State Ownership and Privatization Practices and for follow up on the implementation of the OECD Council on Corporate Governance of State-Owned Enterprises’ Recommendations.

Privatization Program

The Government of The Gambia is currently not engaged in any forms of privatization programs.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $1,010 2017 $1,500 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 N/A 2017 39.6% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Data not available.

Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Georgia

7. State-Owned Enterprises

After the fall of the Soviet Union, the new Georgian government privatized most state-owned enterprises (SOEs).  At the end of 2013, the major remaining SOEs were Georgian Railways, Georgian Oil and Gas Corporation (GOGC), Georgian State Electrosystem (GSE), Electricity System Commercial Operator (ESCO), and Enguri Hydropower plant.  Of these companies, only Georgian Railways is a major market player. The energy-related companies largely implement the government’s energy policies and help manage the electricity market. There are also a number of Legal Entities of Public Law (LEPLs), independent bodies that carry out government functions, such as the Public Service Halls.

During 2012, Georgian Railways, Georgian Oil and Gas Corporation (GOGC), Georgian State Electrosystem, and Electricity System Commercial Operator LLC assets were placed under the Partnership Fund, a state-run fund to facilitate foreign investment into new projects.  In addition, the fund controls 25 percent of shares in TELASI Electricity Distribution Company, but has stated its intention to sell those shares. The fund has not yet sold its shares, but still plans to do so: www.fund.ge  .

Despite state ownership, SOEs act under the general terms of the Entrepreneurial Law.  Georgian Railway and GOGC have supervisory boards, while GSE and ESCO do not. Major procedures and policies are described in the charters of respective SOEs.  Georgia particularly encourages its SOEs to adhere to the OECD’s Guidelines on Corporate Governance for SOEs.

The senior management of SOEs report to Supervisory Boards where they exist (GRW, GOGC); in other cases they report to the line ministries.  Governmental officials can be on the supervisory board of the SOEs and the Partnership Fund has five key governmental officials on its board.  SOEs explicitly are not obligated to consult with government officials before making business decisions, but informal consultations take place depending on the scale and importance of the issue.

To ensure the transparency and accountability of state business decisions and operations, regular outside audits are conducted and annual reports are published.  SOEs with more than 50 percent state ownership are obliged to follow the State Procurement Law and make procurements via public tenders. The Partnership Fund, GRW and GOGC are subject to valuation by international rating agencies.  There is no legal requirement for SOEs to publish an annual report or to submit their books for independent audit, but this is still practiced. In addition, GRW and GOGC are Eurobonds issuer companies and therefore are required to publish reports.

SOEs are subject to the same domestic accounting standards and rules and these standards are comparable to international financial reporting standards.  There are no SOEs that exercise delegated governmental powers.

Privatization Program

Georgia’s government has privatized most large SOEs.  Successful privatization projects include major deals in energy generation and distribution, telecommunications, water utilities, port facilities, and real estate assets.  A list of entities available to be privatized can be found on the following website: www.privatization.ge  .  Foreign investors are welcome to participate in privatization programs.  Further information is also available at a website maintained by the American Chamber of Commerce in Georgia at:  www.amcham.ge  .

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 $16,200  2018 $15.5 bln www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2018 $103.7 2018 N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A N/A N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A  2018 108% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

* Source for Host Country Data: GeoStat (Georgia National Statistics Office)


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment N/A
Total Inward 17,266 100% Total Outward N/A 100%
Azerbaijan 3,760 21.8% N/A N/A N/A
UK 2,746 15.9% N/A N/A N/A
Netherlands 2,575 14.9% N/A N/A N/A
Turkey 1,140 6.6% N/A N/A N/A
China 644 3.7% N/A N/A N/A
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

Source: IMF Coordinated Direct Investment Survey


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

IMF Coordinated Portfolio Investment Survey data is not available for Georgia.

Germany

7. State-Owned Enterprises

The formal term for state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in Germany translates as “public funds, institutions, or companies,” and refers to entities whose budget and administration are separate from those of the government, but in which the government has more than 50 percent of the capital shares or voting rights.  Appropriations for SOEs are included in public budgets, and SOEs can take two forms, either public or private law entities. Public law entities are recognized as legal personalities whose goal, tasks, and organization are established and defined via specific acts of legislation, with the best-known example being the publicly-owned promotional bank KfW (Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau).  The government can also resort to ownership or participation in an entity governed by private law if the following conditions are met: doing so fulfills an important state interest, there is no better or more economical alternative, the financial responsibility of the federal government is limited, the government has appropriate supervisory influence, yearly reports are published, and such control is approved by the Federal Finance Ministry and the ministry responsible for the subject matter.

Government oversight of SOEs is decentralized and handled by the ministry with the appropriate technical area of expertise.  The primary goal of such involvement is promoting public interests rather than generating profits. The government is required to close its ownership stake in a private entity if tasks change or technological progress provides more effective alternatives, though certain areas, particularly science and culture, remain permanent core government obligations.  German SOEs are subject to the same taxes and the same value added tax rebate policies as their private sector competitors. There are no laws or rules that seek to ensure a primary or leading role for SOEs in certain sectors or industries. Private enterprises have the same access to financing as SOEs, including access to state-owned banks such as KfW.

The Federal Statistics Office maintains a database of SOEs from all three levels of government (federal, state, and municipal) listing a total of 16,833 entities for 2016, or 0.5 percent of the total 3.5 million companies in Germany.  SOEs in 2016 had €547 billion in revenue and €529 billion in expenditures. Almost 40 percent of SOEs’ revenue was generated by water and energy suppliers, 13 percent by health and social services, and 12 percent by transportation-related entities.  Measured by number of companies rather than size, 88 percent of SOEs are owned by municipalities, 10 percent are owned by Germany’s 16 states, and 2 percent are owned by the federal government.

The Federal Finance Ministry is required to publish a detailed annual report on public funds, institutions, and companies in which the federal government has direct participation (including a minority share), or an indirect participation greater than 25 percent and with a nominal capital share worth more than €50,000.  The federal government held a direct participation in 106 companies and an indirect participation in 469 companies at the end of 2016, most prominently Deutsche Bahn (100 percent share), Deutsche Telekom (32 percent share), and Deutsche Post (21 percent share). Federal government ownership is concentrated in the areas of science, infrastructure, administration/increasing efficiency, economic development, defense, development policy, culture.  As the result of federal financial assistance packages from the federally-controlled Financial Market Stability Fund during the global financial crisis of 2008-9, the federal government still has a partial stake in several commercial banks, including a 15.6 percent share in Commerzbank, Germany’s second largest commercial bank. The 2017 annual report (with 2016 data) can be found here:

https://www.bundesfinanzministerium.de/Content/DE/Standardartikel/Themen/Bundesvermoegen/
Privatisierungs_und_Beteiligungspolitik/Beteiligungspolitik/Beteiligungsberichte/beteiligungsbericht-des-bundes-2017.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=7
 

Publicly-owned banks also constitute one of the three pillars of Germany’s banking system (cooperative and commercial banks are the other two).  Germany’s savings banks are mainly owned by the municipalities, while the so-called Landesbanken are typically owned by regional savings bank associations and the state governments.  There are also many state-owned promotional/development banks which have taken on larger governmental roles in financing infrastructure. This increased role removes expenditures from public budgets, particularly helpful in light of Germany’s balanced budget rules, which go into effect for the states in 2020.

A longstanding, prominent case of a partially state-owned enterprise is automotive manufacturer Volkswagen, in which the state of Lower Saxony owns the fourth-largest share in the company at 12.7 percent share, but controls 20 percent of the voting rights.  The so-called Volkswagen Law, passed in 1960, limited individual shareholder’s voting rights in Volkswagen to a maximum of 20 percent regardless of the actual number of shares owned, so that Lower Saxony could veto any takeover attempts. In 2005, the European Commission successfully sued Germany at the European Court of Justice (ECJ), claiming the law impeded the free flow of capital.  The law was subsequently amended to remove the cap on voting rights, but Lower Saxony’s 20 percent share of voting rights was maintained, preserving its ability to block hostile takeovers.

The wholly federal government-owned railway company, Deutsche Bahn, was cleared by the European Commission in 2013 of allegations of abusing its dominant market position after Deutsche Bahn implemented a new, competitive pricing system.  A similar case brought by the German Federal Cartel Office against Deutsche Bahn was terminated in May 2016 after the company implemented a new pricing system.

Privatization Program

Germany does not have any privatization programs at this time.  German authorities treat foreigners equally in privatizations.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 €3,386,000 million 2017 $3,677,439 https://data.worldbank.org/country/germany?view=chart  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2016 €54,810 2017 $136,128 BEA data available at https://apps.bea.gov/international/factsheet/  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2016 €223,813 million 2017 $405,552 BEA data available at https://apps.bea.gov/international/factsheet/  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2016 €21.7Amt 2017 27.2% UNCTAD data available athttps://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx    

* Source for Host Country Data: Federal Statistical Office DESTATIS, Bundesbank; http://www.bundesbank.de   (German Central Bank, 2017 data to be published in April 2019, only available in €)


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment from/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward $950,837 100% Total Outward $1,606,120 100%
Netherlands $181,080 19.0% United States $267,769 16.7%
Luxembourg $164,449 17.3% Netherlands $202,022 12.6%
United States $93,572 9.8% Luxembourg $191,449 11.9%
United Kingdom $83,299 8.8% United Kingdom $149,184 9.3%
Switzerland $79,499 8.4% France $90,077 5.6%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries $12,173,972 100% All Countries $1,266,593 100% All Countries $2,192,351 100%
Luxembourg $680,807 5.6% Luxembourg $566,381 44.7% France $317,050 14.5%
France $416,561 3.4% United States $161,234 12.7% United States $250,607 11.4%
United States $411,841 3.4% Ireland $113,430 9.0% Netherlands $232,576 10.6%
Netherlands $277,569 2.3% France $99,512 7.9% United Kingdom $153,672 7.0%
United Kingdom $211,076 1.7% United Kingdom $57,404 4.5% Italy $139,334 6.4%

Ghana

7. State-Owned Enterprises

By the end of 2017, Ghana had 86 State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs), 45 of which are wholly-owned while 41 are partially owned.  Thirty-six (36) of the wholly-owned SOEs are commercial and operate more independently from government while nine are public corporations or institutions, some providing regulatory functions.  While the President appoints the CEO and full boards of most of the wholly-owned SOEs, they are under the supervision of line ministries. Most of the partially owned investments are in the financial, mining, and oil and gas sectors.  To improve the efficiency of SOEs and reduce fiscal risks they pose to the budget, in 2017 the government embarked on an exercise to tackle weak corporate governance in the SOEs as well as create a single entity institution to monitor all SOEs.  Legislation creating a single authority for managing state-owned assets in pending before Parliament.

Today only a handful of large SOEs remain, mainly in the transportation, power, and extractive sectors.  The largest SOEs are Ghana Ports and Harbor Authority (GPHA), Electricity Company of Ghana (ECG), Volta River Authority (VRA), Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL), Tema Oil Refinery (TOR), Ghana Airport Company Limited (GACL), Ghana Cocoa Board (COCOBOD), Ghana National Gas Company Limited, and Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC). Many of these receive subsidies and assistance from the government.  In March 2019, a private sector concessionaire, Power Distribution Services (PDS) Limited, took over management of ECG, through a process of increasing private sector participation in ECG under Ghana’s second Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) compact, which entered into force in September 2016. The USD 498.2 million compact is designed to increase the commercial viability of the utility. PDS will manage and operate ECG on a concession agreement for a period of 20 years.

While the Government of Ghana does not actively promote adherence to the OECD Guidelines, corporate governance of SOEs is overseen by the State Enterprise Commission (SEC).  The SEC encourages SOEs to be managed like Limited Liability Companies so as to be profit-making. In addition, beginning in 2014, most state-owned enterprises were required to contract and service direct and government-guaranteed loans on their own balance sheet.  The government’s goal is stop adding these loans to “pure public” debt, paid by taxpayers directly through the budget.

Privatization Program

Ghana currently has no formal privatization program; however, the current government is prioritizing the creation of public-private partnerships (PPPs) to restructure and privatize non-performing state-owned enterprises.  Procuring PPPs is allowed under the National Policy on Public Private Partnerships in Ghana, which was adopted in June 2011. A PPP law is being drafted.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 $65,556 2017 $58,997 www.worldbank.org/en/country  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $1,698 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $52 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 56% UNCTAD data available at
https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment from/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward Amount 100% Total Outward Amount 100%
Ireland Amount 36% Country #1 Amount X%
France Amount 15% Country #2 Amount X%
Cayman Islands Amount 12% Country #3 Amount X%
Brit Virgin Islands Amount 11% Country #4 Amount X%
Belgium Amount 10% Country #5 Amount X%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Greece

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Greek state-owned enterprises (SOEs) are active in utilities, transportation, energy, media, health, and the defense industry.  A private non-government affiliated website maintains an online list of SOEs.  The uniform legal definition of an SOE is a company/organization that belongs to or is controlled and managed by the state.  Most Greek SOEs are structured under the auspices of the Hellenic Corporation for Assets and Participations (HCAP), an independent holding company for state assets mandated by Greece’s most recent bailout and formally launched in 2016.  HCAP’s supervisory board is independent from the Greek state and is appointed in part by Greece’s creditor institutions.  Some SOEs are still supervised by the Finance Ministry’s Special Secretariat for Public Enterprises and Organizations, established by Law 3429/2005.  Private companies previously were unable to enter the market in sectors where the SOE functioned as a monopoly, for example, water, sewage, or urban transportation.  However, several of these SOEs are planned to privatize as a requirement of the country’s bailout programs, intended to liberalize markets and raise revenues for the state.

Official government statements on privatization since 2015 have sometimes led to confusion among investors.  Some senior officials have declared their opposition to previously approved privatization projects, while other officials have maintained the stance that the government remains committed to the sale of SOEs.  Under the bailout agreement, Greece has moved forward with the deregulation of the electricity market.  In sectors opened to private investment, such as the telecommunications market, private enterprises compete with public enterprises under the same nominal terms and conditions with respect to access to markets, credit, and other business operations, such as licenses and supplies.  Some private sector competitors to SOEs report the government has provided preferential treatment to SOEs in obtaining licenses and leases.  The government actively seeks to end many of these state monopolies and introduce private competition as part of its overall reform of the Greek economy.  Greece – as a member of the EU – participates in the Government Procurement Agreement within the framework of the WTO.  SOEs purchase goods and services from private sector and foreign firms through public tenders.  SOEs are subject to budget constraints, with salary cuts imposed in the past few years on public sector jobs.

Privatization Program

The Hellenic Republic Asset Development Fund (HRADF, or TAIPED, as it is known in Greek), an independent non-governmental privatization fund, was established in 2011 under Greece’s bailout program to manage the sale or concession of major government assets, to raise substantial state revenue, and to bring in new technology and expertise for the commercial development of these assets.  These include listed and unlisted state-owned companies, infrastructure, and commercially valuable buildings and land.  Foreign and domestic investor participation in the privatization program has generally not been subject to restrictions, although the economic environment during the crisis has challenged the domestic private sector’s ability to raise funds to purchase firms slated for privatization.

The August 2015 ESM bailout agreement required Greece to consolidate the HRADF, the Hellenic Financial Stability Fund (HFSF), the Public Properties Company (ETAD) and a new entity that will manage other state-owned enterprises (SOEs) into the Hellenic Corporation of Assets and Participations (or HCAP), was formed by Law 4389/2016.  In March 2017, HCAP received short- and long-term guidelines from the Minister of Finance, and in September 2017, it received strategic guidelines from the Greek state (HCAP’s sole shareholder).

Privatizations are subject to a public bidding process, which is easy to understand, non-discriminatory, and transparent.  Notable privatizations completed in 2018 include the transfer of the 66percent of Greece’s gas transmission system operator DESFA to Senfluga Energy Infrastructure Holdings, sale of  67percent of the shares of Thessaloniki Port Authority (OLTh), the sale of the remaining 5percent of the largest telecommunications provider (OTE) shares to Deutsche Telecom, and rolling stock maintenance and railroad availability services company Rosco.  In February 2019, the government concluded the 20-year extension of the concession agreement of the Athens International Airport (AIA), worth 1.4 billion euros, and is planning to sell remaining 30percent share in AIA in the upcoming months.  The government plans to privatize 10 regional ports and several marinas across Greece, including Heraklion, Elefsina, and Alexandroupolis.  In addition, the Hellenic Gaming commission announced a tender for a casino licenses slated to run at Hellenikon, an 8 billion euro project to develop Athens former airport into a multi-purpose complex.  Currently, the privatization of Public Power Corporation’s (PPC) two lignite powered units in Melitis and Megalopoli, natural gas company DEPA and the Egnatia motorway in northern Greece (Greece’s biggest highway) are ongoing.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount  
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $215,600    2016 $192,600

 

http://www.statistics.gr/en/the-greek-economy 

https://data.worldbank.org/country/greece 

 

Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2017 $917 2018 $95

 

https://www.bankofgreece.gr/Pages/en/other/AdvSearch.aspx?k=foreign%20direct%20investment 

https://www.bea.gov/international/di1usdbal.htm _multinational_companies_comprehensive_data.htm 

Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) 2016 $2,900b

 

2018 Greece is not on the FDI list for 2018mn https://www.bankofgreece.gr/BogDocumentEn/FDI%20_WEB1_ABROAD_BYCOUNTRY.xls 

https://bea.gov/international/di1fdibal.htm 

 

Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2017 $37,700

 

2017 16.8% of GDP https://data.oecd.org/fdi/fdi-stocks.htm 

 


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment from/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward 32,536 100% Total Outward 19.354 100%
Germany 7,175 21.9% Cyprus 5.056 26.12%
Luxembourg 6,870 21.1% United States 2,541 13.1%
Netherlands 6.101 18.7.6% Netherlands 2.359 12.1%
Switzerland 3,381 10.3% China: Hong Kong 2.316 11.9%
France 1.782 5.4% Romania 1.880 9.7%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio Investment Assets
Top Five Partners (Millions, US Dollars)
Total Equity Securities Total Debt Securities
All Countries 118.893 100% All Countries 10.587 100% All Countries 108.306 100%
Luxembourg 42.186 35.4% Luxembourg 7.171 67.73% Luxembourg 35.015 32.3%
United Kingdom 10.535 8.8% Ireland 1.447 13.6% United Kingdom 10.407 9.6%
Italy 8.566 7.2% France 463 4.3% Italy 8.558 7.9%
Spain 7.753 6.5% United States 413 3.9% Spain 7.739 7.1%
France 3.792 3.1% Netherlands 182 1.7% France 3.330 3.07%

Grenada

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Grenadian state-owned enterprises are legislatively established by acts of Parliament.  These enterprises all have boards of directors appointed by the government and answerable to particular ministries.  Twenty-five of 28 authorized state-owned enterprises (SOEs) are operational. They secure credit on commercial terms from commercial banks.  SOEs submit annual reports to the Government Audit Department and are subject to audits shared with their parent ministries. SOEs manage transportation infrastructure (ports and airports), housing, education, hospitals, cement production, investment promotion, and small business development, among other functions.  Generally, where they compete with the private sector, they do so on an equal basis.

Grenada, like its neighbors, acknowledges the OECD guidelines.  Corporate governance of SOEs is established and regulated by founding statutes.  Local courts show no favoritism toward SOEs in adjudication of investment disputes.

For additional information on SOEs in Grenada see: http://www.oecd.org/countries/grenada/  

Privatization Program

Grenada does not have a privatization program

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2017 $1,126,88 2017 $1,127 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $41 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2016 $8 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 204.0% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

* Source for Host Country Data: Grenada Ministry of Finance Statistical Department. Data as of December 31, 2018.


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Information for Grenada is not available on the IMF’s Coordinated Direct Investment Survey (CDIS) site. Host country data is also not available.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Information for Grenada is not available on the IMF’s Coordinated Portfolio Investment Survey site for Sources of Portfolio Investment. Host country data is also not available.

Guatemala

7. State-Owned Enterprises

With the exception of the National Electricity Institute (INDE) and two state-owned ports, Guatemala does not have significant state-owned enterprises (SOEs).  INDE is a state-owned electricity company responsible for expanding the provision of electricity to rural communities. INDE owns approximately 13 percent of the country’s installed effective generation capacity, and it participates in the wholesale market under the same rules as its competitors.  It also provides a subsidy to consumers of up to 100 kilowatt-hours (kWh) per month. Its board of directors comprises representatives from the government, municipalities, business associations, and labor unions. The board of directors appoints the general manager.

The GoG currently owns 16 percent of the shares of Rural Development Bank (BanRural), the second largest bank in Guatemala, and holds 3 out of 10 seats on its board of directors.  BanRural is a mixed capital company and operates under the same laws and regulations as other commercial banks. The GoG also appoints the manager of GUATEL, the former state-owned telephone company dedicated to providing rural and government services that split off from the fixed-line telephone company during its privatization in 1998.  GUATEL’s operations are small and it continuously fails to generate sufficient revenue to cover expenses. The GUATEL director reports to the Guatemalan president and to the board of directors.

Privatization Program

The GoG privatized a number of state-owned assets in industries and utilities in the late 1990s including power distribution, telephone services, and grain storage.  Guatemala does not currently have a privatization program.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Guatemala has the largest economy in Central America, reaching a USD 78.45 billion gross domestic product (GDP) in 2018, with an estimated 3.0 percent growth rate in 2018.  Remittances, mostly from the United States, increased by 13.4 percent in 2018 and were equivalent to 11.8 percent of GDP. The United States is Guatemala’s most important economic partner.  According to preliminary Banguat data, FDI stock was USD 16.36 billion in 2018, a 1.5 percent increase in relation to 2017. Estimated foreign portfolio investment totaled USD 4.91 billion in 2018, with about 60 percent invested in government bonds.  There is no official data available on sources of stock of FDI or foreign portfolio investment.


Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source* USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) 2018 $78,450 2017 $75,620 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical source* USG or international statistical source USG or international Source of data:  BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $1,048 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2016 $2 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP 2018 20.9 2017 21.9 UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  

* Bank of Guatemala http://www.banguat.gob.gt  .  Estimated GDP year-end figures were published in December 2018 and preliminary FDI year-end data were published on March 29, 2019.


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Direct Investment From/in Counterpart Economy Data
From Top Five Sources/To Top Five Destinations (US Dollars, Millions)
Inward Direct Investment Outward Direct Investment
Total Inward 16,125 100% Total Outward 981 100%
United States 3,220 19.97% El Salvador 194 19.78%
Mexico 2,475 15.35% Bahamas, The 176 17.94%
Colombia 1,842 11.42% Panama 164 16.72%
Spain 833 5.17% Barbados 110 11.21%
Switzerland 722 4.48% Mexico 109 11.11%
“0” reflects amounts rounded to +/- USD 500,000.

According to data from the Coordinated Investment Survey for 2017 published by the IMF, about one fifth of FDI in Guatemala comes from the United States.  Other important sources of FDI are Mexico, Colombia, and Spain (please see Table 3 on sources and destinations of FDI below). Preliminary data from Banguat also show that the flow of FDI totaled USD 1.03 billion in 2018 (1.31 percent of GDP), an 11.8 percent decline compared to USD 1.17 billion (1.55 percent of GDP) received in 2017.  Some of the activities that attracted most of the FDI flows in the last three years were commerce, banking and insurance, manufacturing, telecommunications, and electricity.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio investment data are not available for Guatemala.

Guinea

7. State-Owned Enterprises

While Guinea maintains some state-owned enterprises (SOEs) for public utilities (water and electricity), the Conde administration is moving towards allowing private enterprises to operate in this sphere, handing over management of the state-owned electric utility Electricité de Guinée (EDG) to the French firm Veolia in 2015. Veolia is taking steps to improve the urban electricity infrastructure by reducing system losses and illegal connections. Several private projects aimed at harnessing Guinea’s hydroelectric energy potential and improving transmission are being implemented with the goal of producing and selling energy throughout Guinea and to neighboring countries.

The hydroelectricity sector could provide the basis for Guinea’s modernization and also supply regional markets. Guinea’s hydropower potential is estimated at over 6,000MW, making Guinea a potential exporter of power to neighboring countries. In 2015, Guinea built the Kaleta Dam, doubling the country’s electricity generating capacity and providing Conakry with a more reliable source of power for most of the year. The government is now pushing forward with the more ambitious Souapiti Dam and numerous renewable and non-renewable power generation plans, for which EDG would be the primary vendor. The country uses and produces about 450MW of power, so the Souapiti project would create ample reserves for export. Plans for improving the distribution network to enable electricity export are in process with the development of the Gambia River Basin Development Project (OMVG) (Organization pour la Mise en Oeuvre de Fleuve Gambie, in French) transmission project connecting Guinea and Senegal.  The OMVG project involves the construction of 1,677 kilometres of 225-volt transmission network capable of handling 88MW of energy, followed by the construction of 15 transmission substations of 225/30kW each.  At the same time, Guinea is moving forward with the Côte d’Ivoire, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea (CSLG) transmission interconnector project, which will integrate Guinea into the West African Power Pool (WAPP) and allow for energy export across the region.  While the government does not publish significant information concerning the financial stability of its state-owned enterprises (SOE), EDG’s balance sheet is understood to be in the red. The IMF reported that as recently as 2017, up to 28 percent of the Guinean budget has gone toward subsidizing electricity, and the IMF is demanding that EDG improve tariff collection  as large numbers of users do not pay for power.

The amount of research and development (R&D) expenditures is not known, but it would be highly unlikely that any of Guinea’s SOEs would devote significant funding to R&D.  Guinean SOEs are entitled to subsidized fuel, which EDG uses to run thermal generator stations in the capital. Guinea is not party to the Government Procurement Agreement.

OECD Guidelines on Corporate Governance of SOEs

Corporate governance of SOEs is determined by the government. Guinean SOEs do not adhere to the OECD guidelines. SOEs are supposed to report to the Office of the President, however, typically they report to a ministry. Seats on the board of governance for SOE are usually allocated by presidential decree.

Privatization Program

The Guinean government is actively working on the privatization of the energy sector. In April 2015, the government tendered a management contract to run the state owned electrical utility EDG. French company Veolia won the tender and has begun a four-year program to manage and rehabilitate the insolvent utility. The U.S. Embassy understands that at the conclusion of Veolia’s contract, the government will look to privatize EDG or seek to develop a Public-Private Partnership. The government also wants a private company to operate the Kaleta Dam. Bidding processes are clearly spelled out for potential bidders, however, Guinea gives weight to competence in the French language and experience working on similar projects in West Africa. In spring 2015, a U.S. company lost a fiber optics tender largely due to its lack of native French speakers on the project and lack of regional experience.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) N/A N/A 2017 $10,500 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2016 $11 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A N/A N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A N/A 44.4% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx    


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Data not available.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Data not available.

Guyana

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Private enterprises compete with state-owned enterprises (SOEs) under the same terms and conditions for market access, credit and other business operations, and licenses.  Currently there are six SOEs in Guyana: Guyana Sugar Corporation (GUYSUCO), Guyana Oil Company Limited, Guyana Power and Light Inc., National Communications Network, Guyana National Printers, and Georgetown Marriott Hotel.  The corporate governance structure of Guyanese SOEs requires that senior management report to a chief executive officer, who reports to a board of directors, which in turn reports to a government minister. Political interventions occur in the management of SOEs because their boards of directors are filled through political appointments directed by the Office of the President.

The National Industrial and Commercial Investments Limited (NICIL), a private limited company, acts as subscriber and manager of the government’s shares, stocks, and debentures of any company, cooperative societies, or other corporate body.  It also manages government-owned real estate properties, including their acquisition, disposal, or rental. Managing the government’s shareholdings and minimizing conflict of interests are NICIL’s main functions.

During the 1990s, Guyana underwent a significant privatization process, divesting many of its holdings in the banking, telecommunications, agriculture, and manufacturing sectors.  Since then, the pace of privatization has slowed. Since 2003, the government has privatized only two entities: National Bank for Industry and Commerce, which now does business as Republic Bank; and, National Edible Oil Company, acquired by a biofuels company.  Furthermore, the state reduced its participation in two of Guyana’s leading bauxite mining companies: Aroaima Mining Company and Linmine Bauxite.

The Public Corporation Act requires public corporations to publish an annual report no later than six months after the end of the calendar year.  These financial reports must be audited by an independent auditor.

Privatization Program

Foreign investors generally have equal access to privatization opportunities, even though some report that the privatization process may not be wholly transparent.  For some larger operations, foreign investment is openly preferred. Since 1992, the GoG has privatized 16 out of 22 state-owned enterprises (SOEs). Only Guyana Oil Company Limited, Guyana National Printers Limited, Guyana Sugar Corporation, National Communication Network (NCN), Guyana Power & Light (GPL), and Georgetown Marriott Hotel remain as SOEs.  Most large-scale investments in Guyana’s infrastructure are government projects financed by international financial institutions, with the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) being the government’s largest lender. U.S. firms are generally given equal access to these projects through a public bidding process. In some cases, allegations have been made that this bidding process has been less than transparent.  In cases where international financial institution (IFI) funding has been involved in the project, such allegations have been credibly addressed. In cases where the project relied solely on GoG funds, redress has been more problematic to achieve.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ($M USD) N/A N/A 2016 $3,504 www.worldbank.org/en/country   
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country ($M USD, stock positions) 2014 $255.2 N/A N/A BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Host country’s FDI in the United States ($M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $3,185 BEA data available at https://www.bea.gov/international/direct-investment-and-multinational-enterprises-comprehensive-data  
Total inbound stock of FDI as % host GDP N/A N/A 2017 88.7% UNCTAD data available at https://unctad.org/en/Pages/DIAE/World%20Investment%20Report/Country-Fact-Sheets.aspx  


Table 3: Sources and Destination of FDI

Foreign direct investment position data are not available for Guyana.


Table 4: Sources of Portfolio Investment

Portfolio investment data are not available for Guyana.

Haiti

7. State-Owned Enterprises

Before privatization efforts that began in the mid-1990s, the government of Haiti fully owned and operated State-Owned Enterprises (SOE). The Haitian commercial code governs the operations of the SOEs. The sector included a flourmill, a cement factory, a telephone company (TELECO), the electricity company (EDH), the national port authority, the airport authority, and two commercial banks: Banque Nationale de Credit and Banque Populaire Haitienne. The law defines SOEs as autonomous enterprises that are legally authorized to be involved in commercial, financial and industrial activities. All SOEs operate under the supervision of a sectorial ministry, and are expected to create economic and social return. Today, some SOEs are fully owned by the state, while others are jointly owned commercial enterprises. The Haitian parliament has full authority to liquidate state enterprises that are underperforming.

Today, the non-financial SOEs that remain in the public portfolio includes the electricity company (EDH), the national airport authority, a sugar factory, the port authority, the social security office, the postal office, and the vehicle insurance company. The majority of SOEs are financially sound, with the exception of EDH. EDH receives substantial annual subsidies from the government of Haiti to stay in business.

Privatization Program

In response to the economic difficulties of the late 1990s and mismanagement of the SOEs, the government liberalized the market to allow foreign firms to invest in the management and/or ownership of Haitian state-owned enterprises. To accompany the initiative, the government established the Commission for the Modernization of Public Enterprises in 1996 to facilitate the privatization process, while creating strategies to privatize all SOEs.

In 1998, two U.S. companies, Seaboard and Continental Grain, purchased shares of the state-owned flourmill. Each partner currently owns a third of the company, known today as Les Moulins d’Haiti. In 1999, a consortium of Colombian, Swiss, and Haitian investors purchased a majority stake in the national cement factory. In 2010, a Vietnamese corporation, Viettel, officially acquired 60 percent of the state telecommunications company Teleco (now operating as Natcom), with the government of Haiti retaining 40 percent ownership. Competition is not distorted in favor of state-owned enterprises to the detriment of private companies.

The government has allowed limited private sector investment in selected seaports. The government provided fiscal incentives to the GB Group to build Haiti’s first Panamax container port. This project received its first ship in late 2015.

The government of Haiti has allowed private sector investment in electricity generation to compensate for EDH’s inability to supply sufficient power. Three private power producers generate electricity for EDH. The most recent entry, E-Power, opened a 32 megawatt, USD 56 million, IFC-financed heavy fuel-oil powered generation plant in Port-au-Prince in 2011. The National Regulatory Authority of the Energy Sector in Haiti (ANARSE), a state body created by decree in February 2016, concluded prequalification rounds for regional and mini electricity grids and power production, in October 2018 and March 2019 respectively. ANARSE is expected to start issuing tenders in 2019 for concessions for public private partnership for these regional and mini grids.

13. Foreign Direct Investment and Foreign Portfolio Investment Statistics

Table 2: Key Macroeconomic Data, U.S. FDI in Host Country/Economy

  Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
Economic Data Year Amount Year Amount  
Host Country Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (M USD) 2018 $9,525 2018 $9,525 www.worldbank.org/en/country  
Foreign Direct Investment Host Country Statistical Source USG or International Statistical Source USG or International Source of Data:
BEA; IMF; Eurostat; UNCTAD, Other
U.S. FDI in partner country (M USD, stock positions) N/A N/A 2017 $34 BEA data available at

http://bea.gov/international/direct_